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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 24, 1934

BOARD OF EDITORS

JoHN A. STEVENSON F. G. BRicKWEDDE
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

H. T. WENSEL Haroup Morrison
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
EK. A. GOLDMAN W. W. RuBEY
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
AGNES CHASE J. R. SWANTON
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
R. E. Gipson ee
CHEMICAL SOCIETY eer et EAS
- 7 x?
LAS
é ‘om -
. \"
PUBLISHED MONTHLY RQ Af. x
. See 4 weer
BY THE * Swe

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
450 AuNnaip St.
AT MENnasHA, WISCONSIN

ERRATA

Vol. 24, 1934

Page 304. The statement following the legend for Fig. 8, ‘‘External edge of sheath
inadvertently omitted,”’ applies to Fig. 6 rather than Fig. 8.
Page 400, line 17: for ‘‘Trinemam”’ read ‘‘Trinema.”’

Jo OHN A. Sareeanks
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

otf pia

» Se" 5

aot Monson:
: ENTOMOLOGICAL, SOCIETY

W. w. Russy

Bes pti GICAL SOCIETY

As 5 R. Swanron
. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Gipson»
‘CHEMICAL socrarr

ig te) cuss.
450 AHNAIP Sr. $ . SIONAL, MUS= —

7 /ASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENC!

—

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ar ‘Mewasua, Wisconsin

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences oy

This JourNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes:
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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: R. F. Griaas, George Washington University.
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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 24 JANUARY 15, 1934 No; I

CHEMISTRY.—The ammoniation of waste sulfite liquor and its pos-
sible utilization as a fertilizer material.:| Max Puiuuips, M. J.
Goss, B. E. Brown, and F. R. Reip, Bureau of Chemistry and
Soils.

The preparation of paper pulp by the sulfite process consists es-
sentially in heating wood, under pressure, with an aqueous solution
of calcium bisulfite and sulfurous acid. This operation converts the
lignin into so-called lignin sulfonic acids, which are soluble in water,
and leaves the cellulose in a more or less pure state. The spent liquors
containing the lignin sulfonic acids, commonly referred to as ‘“‘waste
sulfite liquor,’ are generally discarded, and the disposal of this ma-
terial aggravates seriously the river pollution problem. It is estimated
that in this country alone approximately 1,500,000 tons of lignin are
annually discharged from the various pulp-wood mills.

Although the problem of utilization of waste sulfite liquor is one
upon which considerable research work has been done by many
chemists, in this country and abroad, it is still largely unsolved. At-
tempts have been made to utilize this liquor in connection with the
preparation of binding materials, adhesives, sizing and tanning ma-
terials, dyes, and as a fertilizer, but without much success. A review
of the literature on the utilization of waste sulfite liquor is given in a
bulletin by Johnsen and Hovey (1). Of the more recent publications
on the utilization of waste sulfite liquor as a fertilizer may be men-
tioned that of Bokorny (2), and that of Gorbing (8). Bokorny ap-
plied to the soil some waste sulfite liquor from which the sugars had
been removed by fermentation with yeast, and obtained increased
yields of wheat, peas, and potatoes. Gérbing, however, failed to con-
firm the findings of Bokorny.

_ 1 Contribution no. 230 from the Color and Farm Waste and the Soil Fertility Di-
visions, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. Received October 16, 1933.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

In this paper a preliminary report is made on some experiments on
the ammoniation of waste sulfite liquor. In view of the relatively
large amounts of organic matter, chiefly lignin, present in waste sul-
fite liquor, and in view of the known chemical properties of lignin, it
seemed worth while to attempt to ammoniate this material in the
hope of thus obtaining a nitrogenous product having the nitrogen
chemically bound to the organic material. The results thus far ob-
tained indicate that it is possible to obtain a product containing as
much as 10 per cent nitrogen, of which only a negligible amount is
present in the form of ammonium salts.

For the ammoniation experiments a batch of fresh waste sulfite
liquor was obtained from a paper pulp mill.” A portion of this was
evaporated to dryness, dried at 105°C., and analyzed by the standard
A.O. A.C. methods (4). The following results were obtained:

Total P2O;—None
Total N—0.04 per cent
Total K,O—0.15 per cent

A second portion of the waste sulfite liquor was neutralized with
ammonia, evaporated to dryness, and dried at 105°C. (A). The total
nitrogen content of this amounted to 2.60 per cent. In all the subse-
quent ammoniation experiments, this material (A) was used. The am-
moniation was carried out in two steel bombs which revolved in an
oil bath provided with thermostatic control. A full description of the
apparatus has been given elsewhere (5). Into each bomb 50 g. of the
dry material and 300 g. aqueous ammonia (28 per cent NH;) were
placed. In each experiment, the reaction products from the two
bombs were combined, evaporated to dryness on the steam bath, and
dried at 105°C. Two series of experiments were conducted, one at
200°C. and the other at 220°C., in which the time of heating was.
varied. The dried products obtained varied in color from dark brown
to black. The analyses of these products are recorded in Tables 1 and
2. (The total nitrogen and ammoniacal nitrogen were determined by
the standard A.O. A.C. methods [loc. cit.].)

A more detailed report of the ammoniation process, together with
additional data, will be published later. Attention is, however, called
to the relatively high nitrogen content of the preparations and to the
low, almost negligible percentages of ammoniacal nitrogen.

2 The sulfite liquor used in our experiments was kindly supplied by the Brown
Company of Berlin, New Hampshire.

JANUARY 15, 1934 PHILLIPS: AMMONIATION

TABLE 1.—AMMONIATION OF Dry RESIDUE OF SULFITE LIQuOR aT 200°C.

100 g. of the dry residue of neutralized sulfite liquor (A) and 600 cc. Aq. NH; were
used for each experiment.

Time of Total N in Ammoniacal N
Experiment Heating Dry Product in Dry Product
No. (Hours) (per cent) (per cent)
il 4 7.30 ez
Pd 8 8.32 0.36
3 12 8.83 0.20
4 16 8.56 0.22
5 20 9.07 0.19

TABLE 2.—AMMONIATION OF Dry RESIDUE OF SULFITE LIQUOR aT 220°C.

100 g. of the dry residue of neutralized sulfite liquor (A) and 600 cc. Aq. NH; were
used for each experiment.

Time of | Total N in Ammoniacal N
Experiment Heating Dry Product in Dry Product
Oo. (Hours) (per cent) (per cent)
1 4 8.82 OP33
2 8 9.56 0.20
3 12 9.95 0.13
4 16 9.92 ORNS
5 20 10.55 0.09

FERTILIZER VALUE OF AMMONIATED MATERIAL

After ammoniation of the waste sulfite liquor is effected the chief
problem is how to utilize the product to most economical advantage.
A natural query is, “‘Does it possess any value as a fertilizer ma-
terial?’’ On the basis of nitrogen content, running as high as 10.5 per
cent, the ammoniated sulfite lignin rates with fish scrap, tankage and
cottonseed meal, which have been found to be valuable fertilizer
materials. Just how available the nitrogen in the ammoniated product
is to plants as compared with some of the regular nitrogenous fer-
tilizer materials can best be determined by. vegetative tests under
greenhouse or field conditions. Accordingly, preliminary tests were
made in the Soil Fertility Greenhouse at Arlington Farm to determine
this point. In making the greenhouse tests, 1-gallon glazed pots were
used. The soil used, designated Norfolk loamy fine sand, was ob-
tained in nearby Virginia and possessed a pH of 4.8. Both limed and
unlimed soil tests were made. Millet was used as the test crop.

In making the preliminary vegetative tests 5 samples of the dry
residue of ammoniated waste sulfite liquor ranging in nitrogen con-
tent from 2.6 to 9.07 per cent were mixed with commercial super-

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

phosphate and muriate of potash on a 4—12—4 basis.? These 5 mixtures
were compared with (1) a mixture containing only superphosphate
and muriate of potash, an 0-12—4 mixture; (2) a 4-12—4 mixture with
dried blood as the source of nitrogen; and (3) a 4-12—4 mixture with
nitrogen derived equally from sodium nitrate and ammonium sul-
phate.

Additional tests included liming the soil to reduce the soil acidity
to a pH of 6.8 from an original of 4.8 and replanting one of the series
without further fertilizer treatment to determine how much, if any,
residual effect may be expected from the ammoniated material.

The results of these preliminary tests show that while a much bet-
ter growth of millet was obtained with the ammoniated material as
a source of nitrogen in the 4-12—4 mixture than with the 0-12—4 mix-
ture, in no case was the response equal to that obtained with either
dried blood or the mixture of sodium nitrate and ammonium sulphate.
Expressing the results of the pot tests relatively, with the 0—-12—4 at
100, the ammoniated material is 128.7; dried blood, 187.2; and the
inorganic salts, 193.6. The oven dried weights in grams, average of.
5 sets, were as follows: 0-12—4 mixture, 22.13 grams; 4-12—4 (am-
moniated sulphite lignin as source of N), 28.48; dried blood mixture,
41.42; and inorganic salts mixture, 42.84.

Liming the soil provided better growing conditions for the millet
test crop, but whether increased growth was due to change of pH
or to an increase in the availability of the ammoniated material, or
perhaps to both of these factors, was not determined in these tests.
To do so would have required the inclusion of an 0-12—4 treatment on
limed soil. However, the growth of millet on the limed soil failed to
equal that produced with either dried blood or the inorganic salts on
unlimed soil.

One of the pot tests of the ammoniated material (8.32 per cent N).
was replanted to millet without further fertilizer treatment, with re-
sults expressed relatively as follows: 0-12—-4 mixture, 100; 4-12-4 .
mixture, ammoniated material as a source of nitrogen, 77.7; dried
blood mixture, 60; and inorganic salts mixture 44, thus indicating the
possibility that the nitrogen in the ammoniated material is made
available over a longer growing period than that in either the dried
blood or the inorganic salts. The oven dried weights of the millet

3 Four per cent nitrogen (N); 12 per cent phosphoric acid (P:0;); 4 per cent potash
(K,O). Rate of fertilizer application, 2000 pounds to the acre.

4 These figures represent the relative weights of oven dried plant material obtained
from an average of 5 tests.

JANUARY 15, 1934 PHILLIPS: AMMONIATION 5)

plants in the replanted series were as follows: 0-12—4 mixture, 12.15
grams; ammoniated mixture, 9.45; dried blood mixture, 7.30; and
inorganic salts mixture, 5.35 grams.

The relatively better showing of the 0—-12—4 mixture in the re-
planted series was probably due to the greater residues of phosphoric
acid and potash; the soil used being particularly responsive to the
former fertilizer element. The influence of the mixtures containing
nitrogen, on account of heavier growth, was no doubt to remove more
phosphoric acid and potash than did the plants grown without added
nitrogen materials. When replanted without additional treatment the
presumably greater residues of phosphoric acid and potash in the
0—12—4 pots probably induced a greater growth than occurred in the
pots to which the nitrogen materials also were added. This state-
ment may apply equally to the result obtained in the replanted series
with ammoniated waste sulfite liquor, which produced a better yield
of millet than either the dried blood or inorganic salts mixture.

In experimental work now in progress, the effect of varying residues
of phosphoric acid and potash is practically being taken care of by
replenishing these plant food constituents, thus making the response
largely one dependent upon the residual nitrogen supply.

Before final evaluation of the ammoniated material as a fertilizer,
it will be necessary to conduct other tests by employing different soils
and crop plants and by using the ammoniated sulfite liquor as a
partial rather than as an entire source of nitrogen. It will also be es-
sential to determine its value as a conditioning material in mixed
fertilizers and as a soil mulch, and its relative effectiveness under
field conditions on prominent soil types. Finally, it is interesting to
note that notwithstanding the chemical nature of the original ma-
terial before ammoniation, the resulting product showed up fairly
well as a fertilizer material in comparison with standard nitrogen
carriers.

LITERATURE CITED

1. JOHNSEN, B. and Hovey, R.W. Utilization of waste sulfite liquor. Canadian Dept.
of Interior, Forestry Branch Bull. 66.

. Boxorny, T. Weitere Diingungsversuche mit entzuckerter Sulfitablauge. Mitt. deut.
Landw. Ges. 34: 6.1919. Ibid. 35: 202. 1920.

. GorBina, J. Ueber die Verwertung von Zellstoffablaugen zu Diingezwecken. Papier
HabrikanG 25° 573, Oday Odile 71927.

Official and tentative methods of analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural
eecmists 1930: 14-27. Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Washington,

pa CS AS

5. Puituies, M. The preparation of 2-aminoanthraquinone from phthalic anhydride
and chlorobenzene. Ind. Eng. Chem. 17: 721. 1925.

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACACEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

HYDROLOGY .—The history and development of ground-water hy-
drology.! Oscar Epwarp MeEtnzemr, U.S. Geological Survey.

UTILIZATION OF GROUND WATER

Digging for water is doubtless a very ancient art. Indeed, even some
of the lower animals, such as the coyote, are known to dig down to
water where it occurs not far below the surface. However, in the
early stage of human development, men progressed very little be-
yond the coyote in well digging because they lived near springs or
streams which were convenient for fishing and hunting.

When men began to raise large herds and flocks, the grazing within
reach of natural watering places became inadequate; and the task of
digging wells was taken up seriously, especially in arid and semi-arid
regions. Thus, the patriarch Isaac was very active and successful in
digging wells, as is shown by the twenty-sixth chapter of Genesis,
which reads like a water-supply paper.

When men began to cultivate the soil the need for water supplies
was further increased. Some of the most ancient agriculture was car-
ried on in arid regions by means of irrigation, largely with water —
drawn from wells. Throughout the countries of southern Asia and
northern Africa, ground water has, since ancient times, been exten-
sively utilized for irrigation. It has been estimated that on the penin-
sula of India alone not less than 20,000,000 acres are under irrigation
with water obtained from wells—an acreage comparable with the
total irrigated area in the United States.?

With the growth of cities and the development of industry, the de-
mands for new water supplies increased immensely, and these sup-
plies were in large part obtained from wells. At present about two-
thirds of the public waterworks in the United States derive their
water from wells and these waterworks supply nearly 20,000,000 of our
population. The ground-water developments for industrial purposes
have become numerous and complex, and the requirements have be-
come very exacting as to both quantity and quality of water.

The utilization of the ground water, of course, preceded by long

1 Presidential address delivered before the Geological Society of Washington, Dec.
9, 1931. The term ground water is here used to designate the water in the zone of satura-
tion; that is, the water which supplies springs and wells. The terms underground water,
subterranean water, and phreatic water are also used to designate this water. The term
phreatic is derived from the Greek word meaning a well. It suggests the term phreatology
for the branch of science that is here designated by the awkward term ground-water
hydrology. Published with the permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey.
Received March 28, 1933.

2 Cox, W. G. Artesian wells as a means of water supply. Brisbane, pp. 3-7. 1895.

JANUARY 15, 19834 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 7

ages the scientific study of the natural laws that govern the occur-
rence and movement of this water. However, the problems of utiliza-
tion have furnished the chief urge for scientific study, and most of the
men who have made contributions to ground-water hydrology have
been close to the practical problems of ground-water development.

ORIGIN OF GROUND WATER®

From the dawn of history nearly to the present, the source of the
water that flows from the springs has constituted a puzzling prob-
lem that has been the subject of much speculation and controversy.
Prior to the latter part of the 17th century it was generally assumed
that the water discharged by the springs could not be derived from
the rain, first because the rainfall was believed to be inadequate in
quantity, and secondly, because the earth was believed to be too im-
pervious to permit penetration of the rain water far below the sur-
face. With these. two erroneous postulates lightly assumed, the
philosophers devoted their thought to devising ingenuous hypotheses
to account in some other way for the spring and stream water. Two
main hypotheses were developed: one to the effect that sea water is
conducted through subterranean channels below the mountains and
is then purified and raised to the springs; the other to the effect that
in the cold dark caverns under the mountains the subterranean at-
mosphere and perhaps the earth itself are condensed into the moisture
which feeds the springs.

The sea-water hypothesis gave rise to subsidiary hypotheses to ex-
plain how the sea water is freed from its salt and how it is elevated to
the altitude of the springs. The removal of the salt was ascribed to
processes of either distillation or filtration. The elevation of the water
was by different writers ascribed to processes of vaporization and

3 The following publications give interesting and valuable accounts of the historical
development of the theories on the origin of ground water:

Apams, F. D. The origin of springs and rivers—an historical review. Fennia 50:
No. 1, Helsingfors, Finland, 1928. See also abstract in Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 39: 149-
150. 1928; and note on Rainfall and Runoff in Science. 67: 500-501. 1928.

ALTHAUS, JuLIUS. Thespas of Europe. London, pp. 1-9. 1862.

Haas, Hippotyt. Quellenkunde. Leipzig, 1-10. 1895.

IMBEAUX, Ep. Essai d’hydro-géologie. Paris, pp. 16-18. 1930.

Ker~Hack, Konrap. Lehrbuch der Grundwasser und Quellenkunde. Berlin, pp.
74-85. 1912.

Macmr, Henri. Les Moyens de découvrir les eaux souterraines et de les utiliser.
Paris, pp. 1-21. 1912.

MartTEL, E. A. Nouveau traité des eaux souterraines. Paris, pp. 77-98. 1921.

PARAMELLE, L’AsBk. L’Art de découvrir les sources. 1856. Fourth ed. 1896, pp.
64-112.

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

subsequent condensation, to rock pressure, to suction of the wind, to
pressure exerted on the sea by the wind and waves, or later to capil-
lary action. One curious explanation was that, owing to the curvature
of the earth, the water in the middle of the ocean is actually at a
much higher altitude than the springs and hence furnishes the neces-
sary head.

The Greek philosophers.—We can well be sympathetic with the mis-
conceptions of the old Greek philosophers, who were pioneering in the
vast untrodden fields of thought. It appears to me that in some re-
spects they were not very far from the truth. The Greeks were familiar
with cavernous limestone terranes, and hence they conceived the
subterranean regions to have great open spaces with natural processes
comparable with those on the surface. The writings of Homer (about
1000 B.C.), Thales (about 650 B.C.), and Plato (427-347 B.C.) con-
tain passages which indicate that these ancient philosophers cor-
rectly believed that the spring water is derived from the ocean, but
erroneously postulated that this return flow occurs through sub-
terranean channels. Aristotle (884-822 B.C.) on the other hand, de-
veloped the hypothesis of subterranean condensation which was sug- ~
gested by the condensation of atmospheric water vapor. Quoting from
Adams?:

Aristotle said that the air surrounding the earth is turned into water by
the cold of the heavens and falls as rain. He goes on to say that it is unreason-
able for any one to refuse to admit that the air which penetrates and passes
into the crust of the earth also becomes transformed into water owing to
the cold which it encounters there. Within the earth’s crust it is condensed
in the form of moisture which gathers into drops that run together into little
trickling streams, so that the sources of the rivers as it were drip out of the
earth and unite on its surface into brooks and rivers. The rivers thus flow
from the mountains, because the mountains and high lands are suspended
over the lower country like a saturated sponge. It is on the mountains also
the chief rainfall occurs and the water coming out of the earth unites with
the rain water to produce rivers. The rainfall alone is, he states, quite insuf-
ficient to supply the rivers of the world with water. The ocean into which

the rivers run does not overflow because while some of the water is evapo-
rated, the rest of it changes back into air or into one of the other elements.

The Roman philosophers and Vitruvius—The Roman philosophers
in general followed the Greek ideas, and did not contribute much to
the Greek hypotheses except erroneous details. Seneca (3 B.C.—65
A.D. ?) accepted Aristotle’s condensation hypothesis, while Pliny
(23-79 A.D.) adopted the sea-water concept and attempted to ex-
plain how the water is elevated.

4 Op. cit., p. 4. From Meteorologia, Book I, 13.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 9

The theory now generally accepted that the ground water is for the
most part derived from rain and snow by infiltration from the surface,
was briefly but clearly stated by Marcus Vitruvius, who lived about
the time of Christ. Vitruvius was not a philosopher but an architect.
He produced a work on architecture in ten books, and in conformity
with the importance given by the Romans to water supplies, he de-
voted one of the 10 books to that subject. At the beginning of Book
8, as quoted from the English translation by Givilt,® he stated:

As it is the opinion of physiologists, philosophers, and priests that all
things proceed from water, I thought it necessary, as in the preceding seven
books rules are laid down for buildings, to describe in this the method of
finding water, its different properties according to the varied nature of
places, how it ought to be conducted, and in what manner it should be

judged of; inasmuch as it is of infinite importance for the purposes of life,
for pleasure, and for our daily use.

The mountains, he explained, receive a large amount of rain, which
they allow to percolate through the rock strata to their base, where,
issuing forth, it gives rise to streams.

The writers of the Dark Ages——During the Middle Ages, according
to Adams,° all the philosophers and interpreters of Holy Scripture,
from St. Jerome (340-420 A.D.) down, taught that the springs have
their origin in the ocean. They generally based this assumption on
passages in the Bible such as Ecclesiastes 1, 7: “All the rivers run into
the sea, yet the sea is not full; unto the place from whence the rivers
come thither they return again.’’ These writers stated that the sea
water escapes through holes in the bottom of the ocean, flows into
the bowels of the earth, and thence is elevated to the springs.

The early period of modern times—Bernard Palissy.—Beginning
with the middle of the 16th century numerous publications appeared
which contained discussions of ground water, some of them relating
primarily to this subject. Until near the close of the 17th century the
two old Greek hypotheses chiefly occupied the field, with many fan-
tastic adornments, although the infiltration theory was explained by
a few writers, especially in 1580 by Bernard Palissy’ (1509-1589),
French Huguenot, inventor of enameled pottery, and pioneer paleon-
tologist.

Palissy was reared in poverty and was not educated in Greek or
Latin. He began early to observe nature and he based his theories on

> GivitT, JOSEPH. Architecture, by Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, Book 8: 177-200.
Translated from the Latin, 1860.

FOPaciisspps S09:

7 Pauissy, BERNARD. Discours admirable de la nature des eaux et fontaines tant
naturelles qu’artwficrelles. 1580.

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

his own observations. “I have had no other books,” he wrote, ‘‘than
Heaven and Earth, which are open to all.’”’ His discourse on water and
springs was written in French, whereas the philosophic treatises of
that period were generally in Latin. This discourse is in the form of a
fascinating dialogue between ‘“‘Theory”’ and ‘‘Practice.”’

‘“‘When for a long time,’’ says Practice, ‘‘I had closely considered the
cause of the sources of natural fountains and the place whence they might
proceed, at length I became plainly assured that they could proceed from
or be engendered by nothing but the rains.’’ Theory replies: ‘‘ After having
heard your opinion I am compelled to say that you are a great fool. Do you
think me so ignorant that I should put more faith in what you say, than in
so large a number of philosophers who tell us that all waters come from the
sea and return thither? There are none, even to the old men, who do not
hold this theory, and from all time we have believed it. It is a great presump-
tion in you to wish to make us believe a doctrine altogether new, as if you
were the cleverest philosopher.’’ To which Practice replies: ‘If I were not
well assured in my opinion, you would put me to great shame; but I am not
alarmed at your abuse or your fine language; for I am quite certain that I
shall win against you and against all those who are of your opinion, though
they be Aristotle and the best philosophers that ever lived; for I am quite
assured that my opinion is trustworthy.”’

Thus the argument is developed. Theory defends first the sea-
water and then the condensation hypothesis, while Practice, with
clear and valid arguments, shows the absurdities of these hypotheses,
and then presents simple but convincing evidence that the ground
water is derived from rain.

Palissy’s very sympathetic biographer, Henry Morley,® wrote in
1853 as follows of the reception that was given to ee s theory of
ground water:

“By his immediate hearers Palissy’s doctrine was accepted ; and a few men,
who read his books before they passed from obscure fame into unmerited
oblivion, made practical use of his suggestion. But by the body of his country-
men, in his own day, the character of Palissy as a philosopher was not ap-
preciated. He was one or two—now and then even three—centuries in ad-
vance of his own time, so that his own time had not ears to hear him with.
Moreover, France was busy upon other matters, and had no leisure to think
for half a minute about springs of water while there prevailed a more en-
grossing interest in pools of blood.”’

Two great men of the 17th century who rejected or ignored the
teachings of Palissy were the German astronomer Johann Kepler
(1571-1630) and the French philosopher René Descartes (1596—
1650). The hypothesis that the earth functions somewhat like an
animal, or indeed that it is a living being, became current early in the

8 Moruey, Henry. The Life of Bernard Palissy of Saintes. 2 vols., Boston, 1853.
The quotation and translation of dialogue are in 2: 124. 125.

JANUARY 15, 19834 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 11

17th century and had adherents as late as the 19th century. Kepler
adopted this hypothesis and expressed the opinion that the earth, like
a huge animal, takes in the water of the ocean, digests and assimi-
lates it, and discharges the products of these physiological processes
through springs. Descartes taught that the sea water finds its way
into the depths of the earth through underground channels and is
there vaporized by the heat of the earth’s interior; furthermore that
the vapor rises through caverns, is condensed at higher levels, and
thus supplies the springs.°

The age of Perrault, Mariotté, and Halley—A new epoch in the
history of hydrology began in the latter part of the 17th century
through the work of Pierre Perrault (1608-1680) and Edmé Mariotté
(1620-1684) and other French physicists, and of the English as-
tronomer Edmund Halley (1656-1742). These men put hydrology for
the first time on a quantitative basis. Perrault made measurements
of the rainfall during three years; and he roughly estimated the area
of the drainage basin of the Seine River above a point in Burgundy
and of the run-off from this same basin. Thus he computed that the
quantity of water that fell on the basin as rain or snow was about
six times the quantity discharged by the river. Crude as was his work,
he nevertheless demonstrated the fallacy of the age-old assumption
of the inadequacy of the rainfall to account for the discharge of
springs and streams. Mariotté computed the discharge of the Seine
at Paris by measuring its width, depth, and velocity at approximately
its mean stage, making the velocity measurements by the float
method. He essentially verified Perrault’s results. About the same
time Halley made crude tests of evaporation, and demonstrated that
the evaporation from the sea is sufficient to account for all the water
supplied to the springs and streams, thus removing the need for
Plato’s Tartaros or any other mysterious subterranean channel to
conduct the water from the ocean to the springs.

The relative credit that should be given to Perrault and Mariotté
has been a question of considerable disagreement. A number of
writers have stated that Perrault opposed the infiltration theory.
Fortunately we have in the U. S. Geological Survey library a copy of
the 1678 edition of his treatise on the origin of springs," first published
in 1674. If I read this text correctly Perrault did not argue against the

pe Retunacn, op. cit., pp. 76, 77; MARTEL, op. cit., p. 78; PARAMELLE, op. cit.,
Pat De L’origine des fontaines, Paris, 1678. The name of the author does not appear

in this volume but it is evidently Perrault’s treatise. See also the previously cited note
by Adams in Science, 67: 500-501. 1928.

12. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

infiltration theory, but rather explained that, whereas Vitruvius and
Palissy believed that ground-water recharge occurs chiefly from rain ~
and snow on the mountains, he himself held that the rain feeds the
streams directly, and that the seepage from the streams on the lower
slopes supplies the ground water, which eventually returns to the sur-
face in the lowlands.

Mariotté, who discovered Mariotté’s law of gases, also known as
Boyle’s law, probably deserves more than any other man the dis-
tinction of being regarded as the founder of ground-water hydrology,
perhaps I should say of the entire science of hydrology. In his publica-
tions, which appeared after his death in 1684, he defended vigorously
the infiltration theory and created much of the modern thought on
the subject." According to the brief digest of his works by Keilhack,”
he maintained that the water derived from rain and snow penetrates
into the pores of the earth and accumulates in wells; that this water
percolates downward till it reaches impermeable rock and thence
percolates laterally; and that it is sufficient in quantity to supply the
springs. He demonstrated that the rain water penetrates into the
earth, and used for this purpose the cellar of the Paris Observatory,
the percolation through the cover of which compared with the amount
of rainfall. He also showed that the flow of springs increases in rainy
weather and diminishes in times of drought, and explained that the
more constant springs are supplied from larger underground reser-
VoIrs.

The ground-water literature near the close of the 17th century,
throughout the 18th century, and in the early part of the 19th cen-
tury, was largely devoted to the defense of the old hypotheses as
against the infiltration theory. Nevertheless, the infiltration theory
gradually but irresistibly gained ground and eventually became al-
most universally accepted among scientists, while the old hypotheses -
became more and more shadowy until they lurked only in obscure
haunts like emaciated ghosts.

Modern defenders of the condensation hypothesis.—A rather comical
revival of the condensation hypothesis of Aristotle was presented in
1877 by the German geologist Volger! before a meeting of the Society

11 Mariotr&, Epm&. T'raites du mouvement des eaux et des autres corps fluides,
1686. According to Keilhack, the complete works of Mariotté were published in
Leyden in 1717.

12 KEILHACK, op. cit., pp. 80, 81.

13 VoLcER, Orro. Die wissenschaftliche Losung der Wasser—insbesondere der quel-
lenfrage, mit Rricksicht auf die Versorgung der Stddte. Ver. Deutscher Ing. Zeitschr.,
Berlin. 21: 482-502. 1877.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 13

of German Engineers, in which he took the extreme attitude that no
ground water is derived from rain. Some of his statements were ap-
proximately as follows:

No ground water is derived from rain water. No scientific doctrine is more
unfounded and more fallacious than the doctrine in regard to the origin of
spring water from rain water. ... Even the strongest rain wets the earth
only superficially, penetrates only a little into the uppermost crust and re-
mains suspended therein. ... After eight days of the most severe rainy
weather the ground at the depth of one-half meter will not show the slightest
trace of penetration by water. . . . If the ground were permeable to water, in
the manner indicated by the prevalent doctrine in regard to springs, could
we see before our eyes a river flow from the heights of the mountains to the
sea? Even if the river were ever so richly supplied with water, would it not
in its course have to lose its water if the water percolated into the ground?
Would not every sea have to sink beneath the surface? Would not the same
have to happen to the ocean in spite of its great volume of water? ... The
sea of air extends into the earth to unknown depths, perhaps to the center.
The atmosphere, that is, the globe of the gaseous constituent of the aggre-
gate earth, consists therefore not alone of the sea of air that lies above the
land and water surfaces. The latter is rather only a slight appendage of the
real atmosphere, the vapor-globe, which exists in the ground and in the whole
earth. ... One can say, in general, that all the rocks which constitute the
earth, as far as we know them, take up a larger volume of air than their
own bulk, so that the ground on which we stand thereby contains so much
air that it is just as though the ground were entirely absent and the whole
space which it occupies were filled with air.

This paper contained so many exaggerated and erroneous state-
ments that it is surprising that it should have received much atten-
tion. On the contrary, however, it gave rise to numerous papers—
some of them supporting the condensation theory, some opposing it,
and some taking an intermediate attitude. Although this revived con-
densation theory never gained much support, it has persisted to the
present. In 1921, Ototzky,“ the well-known Russian hydrologist,
stated that the theory of infiltration has no solid scientific basis, and
that infiltration of atmospheric precipitation occurs to a considerable
depth only in exceptional circumstances and in restricted areas. He
mentioned condensation as an important factor in ground-water re-
charge.

The scientific basis of the infiltration theory.—lIn spite of these ap-
parent flarebacks, the infiltration theory has become firmly estab-
lished. The work done in the United States alone has, it seems to me,
conclusively demonstrated that the ground water is derived mainly
from rain and snow. The demonstration consists of abundant care-

44 OrorzKy, P. Underground water and meteorological factors. Roy. Meteorologi-
cal Soc. Quart. Jour., pp. 47-54, 1921. (Translated from the French by L. D. Sawyer.)

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

fully analyzed and substantiated data as to the seepage losses from
streams, the downward penetration of the rain and snow water
through the soil and subsoil, the rise of the water table in response to
the flow of influent streams and in response to rainfall and melting
snow, the slope of the water table from the demonstrated intake
areas to the areas of ground-water discharge, the relation of the quan-
tity of ground-water discharge in any area to the mean annual pre-
cipitation and to the permeability of the intake materials, and the
fluctuation of discharge with fluctuations in precipitation.

The evidence that has been least conclusive is that regarding rain-
fall penetration, whether derived from lysimeter tests or from mois-
ture determinations of soil borings. Negative conclusions regarding
rainfall penetration have been reached, partly because inadequate
methods were used and partly because it was not fully appreciated
that, in spite of many negative results, there may be great recharge in
certain localities of permeable material by confluence of rain water in
periods of exceptionally heavy precipitation. We now have evidence
that soil moisture may be moving downward to the water table, in
large aggregate amounts, without any of it dripping into an ordinary
lysimeter and without a large increase at any time in the moisture
content of the material below the “root zone.’’ A group of investiga-
tors in the U. 8. Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, the U. 8. Geo-
logical Survey, and the California Division of Water Resources are
now engaged in critical studies of rainfall penetration, and are, I
believe, placing this subject on a sounder scientific basis than it has
hitherto had. |

Before leaving the subject of the origin of the ground water, refer-
ence should be made to the theory of juvenile water, which was de-
veloped by Edward Suess,” and the theory of connate water, which
in this country was developed chiefly by Alfred C. Lane. These —
theories supplement rather than conflict with the infiltration theory,
and they can not properly be regarded as having any real relation to
the old condensation and sea-water hypotheses.

THE RISE OF GEOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION
TO GROUND WATER

Geology affords the framework on which ground-water hydrology

is built; more accurately, it describes the rock formations that make
up the great and intricate systems of natural waterworks, the func-

16 Sunss, Epwarp. Uber heisse Quellen. Gesell. deutsch. Naturf. und Aertze
Vortr. pp. 1838-150. 1902.

JANUARY 15, 1984 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 15

tioning of which forms the essential part of the subject of ground-
water hydrology. Therefore, although earnest attempts were made
by Vitruvius and others to give useful information as to the water-
bearing properties of different rocks, the subject of ground-water
hydrology could not be far developed until the fundamental princi-
ples of geology were established near the close of the 18th century.

One of the first men to apply geology, in the modern sense, to the
problems of ground water was William Smith’ (1769-1839), who has
been called the Father of English Geology. Although Smith was
deeply interested in geology for its own sake, he was even more inter-
ested in the fact that as a civil engineer he was able to apply his
knowledge of the new science to engineering problems and to the de-
velopment of mineral and water resources. Although he never wrote
a treatise on any phase of the subject of ground water, he was greatly
interested in the application of geology to ground-water problems.
His notes show that he was interested in wells and springs, not only
because they furnished clues as to the stratigraphy and structure, but
also because of their value in determining the ground-water condi-
tions.

Of special interest is Smith’s development of a water supply for
Scarborough, described in a paper published in 1827, because of its
thoroughly modern attitude in regard to the conservation of ground
water. Obtaining his clues from an old flowing well, he located a water-
bearing sandstone, worked out its boundaries and structure, esti-
mated its yield per foot of drawdown, and then built a subsurface
dam whereby the water was impounded in the sandstone during the
wet winter season and withdrawn through a pipe by gravity in the
summer. In regard to this project Smith wrote with much enthusiasm:

This reservoir, wholly unseen, made at my suggestion in the hills at a
trifling expense, to pen up in the rocks 5,000 hogsheads of water, is by far

the most curious and perhaps the most useful practical hint hitherto deduced
from Geology. So far, I think I was never in my life more usefully employed.

GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY IN EUROPE IN THE 19TH CENTURY

In the first half of the 19th century, the French engineers, geolo-
gists, and drillers took the lead in the study of ground water, largely
because there was intense interest in the artesian conditions and the
great activity in drilling artesian wells during that period in France.
About the middle of the century there appeared a number of publica-
tions, chiefly in France, based on extensive research in different

16 SHEPPARD, THomas. William Smith, his maps and memoirs, Hull, 1920.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 24, No. 1

phases of the subject of ground water, and it should perhaps be con-
sidered that ground-water hydrology, as a branch of science, had its
beginning at this time. I refer especially to the work of the following
men: The engineer Eugéne Belgrand (1810-1878), who in the first of
his many works, published in 1846, made the fundamental distinc-
tion between permeable and impermeable formations as applied to
eround water;!’ the German chemist Karl Gustav Bischof (1792-—
1870), the results of whose work on ground water are given in his
text-book of chemical and physical geology published about 1847;
Jules Dupuit!® (1804-1866), whose work?’ on the movement of ground
water was published in 1848; the Abbé Paramelle?° (1790-1875),
whose treatise on ground water was published in 1856; Jean Dumas”
(1800-1884 ?), whose ‘‘La science des fontaines” was published in
1857; the hydraulic engineer Henri Darcy" (1803-1858), often called
the founder of the science of hydrology, the first results of whose ex-
periments on the laws of flow of ground water were published in 1856
in a work with the modest title ‘Les fontaines publiques de la ville de
Dijon’’; and Henri Bazin, who was associated with Darcy but active
into the present century.

Two notable workers in ground water.in a little tater period were
the French geologist Gabriel Auguste Daubrée (1814-1896), and the
German hydrologist Adolph Thiem (1836-1908). Daubrée made a
large and valuable contribution to the subject of the relation of
geologic structure to the occurrence and movement of ground water.
His principal results” were published in three large volumes in 1887.
Thiem was the pioneer of intensive ground-water work in Germany.
He introduced field methods for making tests of the flow of ground
water and applied the laws of flow in developing water supplies. Un-
der his influence Germany became the leading country in supplying

17 BELGRAND, EuGrENre. Etude hydrologique de la partie supérieure du Basin de la
Seine, 1846. For a list of Belgrand’s principal publications, from 1846 to 1882, see
MaGEr, op. cit., pp. 18, 14. For an estimate of his work see also Pocuxrt, LEON.
Htudes sur les sources. 1: 83-5. 1905.

18 For an estimate of the work of Dupuit and Darcy see KnLtupr, HERMANN. Ge-
spannte Wasser. Halle, p. 9. 1928.

19 DupuitT, JULES. Htudes theoriques et pratiques sur le mouvement des eaux cour-
antes, Paris, 1848; also Traité de la conduite et de la distribution des eauz, Paris, 1854.

20 For sketch of Paramelle’s life and estimate of his work see MaGER, op. cit., pp.
9-13.

21 For estimate of Dumas’ work see MarTEL, op. cit., p. 79; KELLER, op. cit., p. 9.

22 DAUBREE, A. Les eaux souterraines a l’ époque erielic et aux epochues anciennes,
3 vols., Paris, 1887. For estimates of Daubrée’s work see Z1TTE.L, K. A., Geschichte
der Geologie und Palaontologie bis Ende des 19 Jahrhunderts, p. 304, 1899. (English
translation by M. M. Ogilvie-Gordon, pp. 200-202, 1901. PocueErt, Of Glky 10s 235
MAGER, op. cit., pp. 18-20.

JANUARY 15, 19384 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY Ly

the cities with ground water.” The results of his work appeared in a
number of papers, the first in 1870.2 Mention should also be made of
the Italian hydrologist, D. Spataro.”°

GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES
IN THE 19TH CENTURY

In the United States not much systematic ground-water work was
done before 1873. In 1856, George G. Shumard made a brief report on
artesian prospects on the Llano Estacado for the Pacific Railway sur-
vey, which was not published until 1892. In 1857, the New Jersey
Geological Survey published the ‘‘Geology of the county of Cape
May,” by George H. Cook, which included a brief discussion of the
artesian conditions. Later reports of the New Jersey Geological Sur-
vey contain considerable information on the artesian waters of the
State by Lewis Woolman and others. In 1859, W. W. Mather pub-
lished a report on certain artesian wells in Ohio. Some early work on
artesian conditions was also done at New Orleans, Charleston, 8. C.,
and in other parts of the country. From 1873 to 1879, in connection
with the Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Thomas C. Chamberlin
made a thorough study of artesian conditions in Wisconsin. His
principal report on the artesian wells was published by the State sur-
vey in 1877; his well-known paper, ‘“‘The requisite and qualifying con-
ditions of artesian flow,’ was published by the U. 8. Geological Sur-
vey in 1885.

In 1881, C. A. White and Samuel Aughey were appointed by the
Secretary of Agriculture as a geological commission to investigate the
artesian prospects of a portion of the Great Plains. Their brief re-
port, published in 1882, contains only meager data and very general
conclusions.

On March 27, 1890, Major J. W. Powell,* Director of the United
States Geological Survey, presented before the Committee on Irriga-
tion of the House of Representatives a remarkably interesting and in-
formative statement on the artesian conditions and prospects in the
arid regions of the United States. This statements shows that con-
siderable ground-water work had already been done and that some

3 For estimate of Thiem’s work see KELLAR, op. cit., pp. 9, 10.

24 THIEM, ApoLpH. Uber die Ergiebigkeit artesische Bohrlécher, Schachtbrunnen,
usw., 1870. For a list of some of Thiem’s later publications see SLicHTER, C. S.
Theoretical investigations of the motion of ground water. U.S. Geol. Survey Nineteenth
Ann. Rept., pt. 2, p. 384, 1898.

2? SpaTaRO, D. Storia dell’acqua e Idrografia sotterranea d’Italia, Milan, 1891.

eS a iar: Major J. W. U.S. Geol. Survey Eleventh Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 260-
; IS9L.

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

of the main features of the ground-water conditions of the country
were already understood. Major Powell’s summary shows a master-
ful grasp of the situation and his conclusions have stood the test of
time.

On April 4, 1890, an act was approved which authorized the De-
partment of Agriculture to make investigations to determine the
location for artesian wells west of the 97th meridian and east of the
Rocky Mountains. Colonel Edwin 8. Nettleton, irrigation engineer
of the Department of Interior, was placed in charge of the field work,
Robert Hay was appointed chief field geologist, and a number of
other leading geologists were employed. As Congress directed that a
report must be made immediately after July 1, only 60 days were al-
lowed for making the investigation, and on August 20, 1890, the
Secretary of Agriculture transmitted a voluminous report which con-
tains much loosely-assembled information on the artesian conditions
of the extensive region covered, and numerous records of head and
discharge that have acquired peculiar value in showing the approxi-
mate original artesian conditions. With subsequent appropriations
and extensions of time, the investigation was continued and the re-
sults were published in 1891 and 1892 in several volumes that contain
a large amount of information. One of the geologists of this Survey
was Robert T. Hill, who, I believe, has the distinction of being the
first to recognize, in his report published in 1892, the importance of
the water in the valley fill.

About this time great interest developed in ground water, not only
in the arid regions but also in the more humid sections of the country,
and many ground-water investigations were undertaken, chiefly by
the United States Geological Survey. Thus in the last decade of the
19th century a group of eminent American geologists directed their
attention to ground water and published comprehensive and thor-
oughly sound areal reports on the subject. Let us call the roll of these
geologists in the order in which their first publications on ground
water appeared?’: Robert T. Hill, W J McGee, Israel C. Russell,
Nelson H. Darton, Robert Hay, Grove K. Gilbert, Frank Leverett,
Warren Upham, George H. Eldridge, Wiliam H. Norton, T. Way-
land Vaughn, Edward Orton, 8. W. McCallie, and Willard D. John-
son. The largest part in this early work was taken by Darton. Near
the close of the century notable work was also done on the hydrologic

27 For references to the first and subsequent publications on ground water by these

geologists, see NicHois, J. M. Geologie literature of North America 1785-1918, Pt. 1,
Bibliography. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 746: 1923.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 19

phases of the subject of ground water by three eminent American in-
vestigators: Allen Hazen,?* Franklin H. King,”® and Charles S.
Slichter.*°

GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY IN THE 20TH CENTURY

From the beginning of the 20th century to the present time there
has been increased activity in the study of ground water, with more
workers than in any earlier period, and consequently a rapidly in-
creasing literature and a differentiation of the subject along a num-
ber of specialized lines. This activity may to some extent be judged by
the considerable number of comprehensive treatises that have ap-
peared on the subject, most of them the products of many years of
ground-water investigation by the authors. I do not feel qualified to
select the leaders in this recent period, but I will mention a few repre-
sentative workers, all of whom made substantial contributions.

Among the French my attention has been called especially to the -
work of the following men: Léon Pochet, Edmond Maillet, F.
Diénert, Louis Dollé, Edouard Martel, and Edouard Imbeaux. Both
Pochet*! and Maillet®? published treatises in 1905 on the hydraulics
of ground water. Martel has studied especially the occurrence and
movement of water in cavernous limestone, and has also published
a treatise, already cited, on the general subject of ground water. Im-
beaux since 1886 has published extensively on the subject of ground
water, including a large recent work on “‘hydrogeology,’’ already
cited. Dr. Imbeaux has the distinction of being the Chairman of the
Commission on Underground Waters in the Association of Scientific
Hydrology of the International Union of Geodetics and Geophysics.

Among the ground-water hydrologists of Germany I may mention,
in alphabetical order E. Ebermayer, A. Grund, A. Hertzberg, K.
Keilhack, H. Keller, W. Koehne, O. Luegar, E. Prinz, L. Reuter, M.
Rother, W. Salmon, A. Steuer, G. Thiem, and R. Weyrauch. These
and other German hydrologists have produced a large and valuable

28 Annual Reports of Mass. State Board of Health, 1892 and 1893.

29 Kine, FRANKLIN H. Observations and experiments on the fluctuations in the level
and rate of movement of ground water on the Wis. Agri. Exper. farm. U.S. Weather
Bur. Bull. 5: 1892. Principles and conditions of the movements of ground water. U.S.
Geol. Survey 19th Ann. Rept. Pt. 2, pp. 59-294. 1899.

30 SLICHTER, CHARLES S. Theoretical investigation of the motion of ground water.
U.S. Geol. Survey 19th Ann. Rept. Pt. 2, pp. 295-384. 1899.

31 PocuEet, Lion. LHtudes sur les sources. Hydraulique des nappes aquiféres et des
sources et applications pratiques, 2 vols., Paris, 1905.

82 MarILLeT, Epmonp. Essais d’hydraulique souterraine et fluviale, Paris, 1905.

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

literature on the subject. Among the outstanding productions are the
general treatises by Prinz,*® Keilhack,** and Koehne.*

I am not familiar with the literature of Italy, but the high rank of
that country in ground-water work can in some degree bejudged by the
fact that a bibliography prepared by Michele Gortani* lists about one
thousand publications on the ground-water hydrology of Italy be-
tween 1870 and 19238. Outstanding names are perhaps those of G.
Cuppari and M. Canavari.

Much valuable work has also been done in other European coun-
tries. I may mention in Russia, P. Ototzky and Alexander Lebedief ;
in Austria, Hans Hofer-Heimhalt,?’ P. Forchheimer, O. Smreker, U.
Huber, and Charles Terzaghi; in Holland, Eugéne Dubois, J. Pen-
nink, and J. Versluys; in Belgium, René D’Andrimont; in Switzer-
land, Albert Heim, T. Hug, and Arnold Engler; in Sweden, J. Richert;
in Denmark, Hilmar Odum; and in Spain, Bartotomii Darder Pericas,
who recently published a treatise on investigations of ground water.

The British hydrologists have been active in making areal ground-
water surveys and in developing ground-water supplies but have per-
haps contributed less notably to the science of ground-water hy-
drology. Outstanding names in this field are those of Horace B. Wood-
ward®® and William Whittaker, author of numerous areal ground-
water reports for the Geological Survey of Great Britain. Much
ground-water work has been done in Australia, India, and other parts
of the British Empire; also in other parts of Asia and Africa, in the
Latin American countries, and in the uttermost parts of the earth.
Most of this work has, of course, been descriptive, but some critical
investigations have been made, especially in India. |

Beginning with the 20th century and extending to the present time,
a large amount of ground-water work has been in progress in this
country. Most of it has been done by the staff of the United States
Geological Survey, but much has also been contributed by many
other workers, especially in California. Since 1900 the Geological
Survey has published more than 300 papers, in about 190 volumes,

33 Prinz, E. Handbuch der Hydrologie. Berlin, 1st ed. 1919, 2nd ed. 1923.
Contains bibliography which lists the principal publications of the hydrologists men-
tioned and of other European hydrologists.

34 KeILHACK, K. Op. cit., Ist ed. 1912, 2nd ed. 1917, 3rd in preparation.

3 KonHNE, W. Grundwasserkunde. Stuttgard, 1928.

36 GorTANI, MicHeue. Saggio bibliografico dell’idrologia sotteranea d'Italia dal
1870 al 1923. Giornale di Geologia Pratica, 19: 1924. Contains also introduction
concerning Italian ground-water work.

37 Grundwasser und Quellen, Braunschweig, 1912; 2nd ed., 1920.

38 WoopWARD, Horace B. The geology of water supply. London, 1910.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 21

that relate primarily to ground water. These publications are largely
descriptive and areal, but altogether they unquestionably make a
large contribution to the science of ground-water hydrology.*® To
Walter C. Mendenhall, I believe, belongs the chief credit for begin-
ning systematic quantitative investigation, which has become char-
acteristic of our work in this country.

DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF THE SCIENCE

Investigations of artesian principles—Let us now make a rapid
survey of the development of some of the different branches of ground-
water hydrology. Artesian wells have been in existence since ancient
times, and were of great interest not only because of the spectacular
phenomenon of natural overflow but also because of the wholesome
water which they furnished at a time when most water supplies were
badly polluted. According to Keilhack, the Egyptian oases were sup-
plied by numerous artesian wells as early as 2,000 B.C.; and Keilhack,
like some of the other authorities, believes that Moses learned the art
of well drilling from the Egyptians. The study of artesian water natu-
rally came next in historical development to that of the origin of
springs. Even before the emergence of geology, the basic principles
of artesian pressure were understood. Pioneers in the development
of the hydrostatic theory of artesian pressure were the Italian as-
tronomer and geographer Giovanni Cassini (1625-1712), and the
Italian physician Bernardini Ramazzini, whose best-known publica-
tion appeared in 1691. In the first half of the 19th century, the
French were active, not only in drilling artesian wells and improving
drilling methods, but also in developing the principles of artesian
pressure and in making geologic applications of them in locating
artesian water. During this period the hydrostatic theory became
well established.

Chamberlin’s paper published in 1885 is a clear, accurate, and criti-
cal statement of the general subject of artesian conditions, based
largely on his own field studies. Very modestly he stated that it was
not an exhaustive exposition of the subject and did not contain much
that was original. He did his work so well, however, that the subse-
quent prevailing attitude, at least in this country, was one of compla-
cent assumption that the principles of the subject were completely

39 See Water-Supply Paper 427 for U. S. Geological Survey publications relating
to ground water up to 1918, and the Survey’s list of publications for later papers. Pub-
lications on ground water since 1928 are listed in the semi-annual volumes of Annotated

bibliography of economic geology (prepared under the auspices of the National Re-
search Council)

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

mastered. This attitude was challenged by M. L. Fuller in 1908 in
his paper, “Summary of the controlling factors of artesian flows.’’*°
We now recognize that the hydrology of artesian water is a compli-
cated subject that offers a large field for further investigation. Until
recently attention has been directed mainly toward the static or
structural conditions, with neglect of the hydraulics or dynamics of
artesian water, although Chamberlin recognized what we may per-
haps call the dynamic principle, and, indeed, considered that his
original contribution lay in the recognition of this principle.

Rock pressure was assumed by Thales about 650 B.C., and later
by Pliny, as the agency for elevating the sea water to the levels of the
springs. In modern times rock pressure has been suggested by differ-
ent investigators as a cause of artesian head, and there has been un-
profitable argument between the champions of this theory and the de-
fenders of the orthodox hydrostatic theory. Recent critical interpreta-
tion of the behavior of wells has led us to recognize that the artesian
water supports a part of the load of the overlying rocks and that many
of the water-bearing formations have measurable elasticity ; however,
this concept of rock pressure supplements the hydrostatic theory
without displacing it.”

Development of the principles relating to water tables and pressure-
undicating surfaces——The concepts of the zone of saturation and of
the water table, as the upper, free-water surface of that zone, de-
veloped later than the concept of the artesian basin. In a sense the
early scientific thought on ground water was deficient with respect to
the third dimension. It was generally considered that the water from
the surface percolates downward till it reaches an impermeable bed
and then percolates laterally over the upper surface of that bed to its
outcrop. This concept was amplified by the recognition of artesian
structures in which the water becomes confined between two im-
permeable beds. More recently the concept has been developed, step
by step, of a zone of saturation, with large storage capacity, perform-
ing the functions both of a huge reservoir and of a very intricate sys-
tem of conduits.

The simple concept of the water table has developed rather tardily,
although a good contour map of the water table was published by
Gustave Dumont” in 1856. Gradually we are coming to recognize the

40 FULLER, M.L. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 319: 1908.

41 MrinzER, O. E. Compressibility and elasticity of artesian aquifers. Econ. Geol.
23: 263-291. 1928.

42 Dumont, Gustave. Les eaux alimentaires de la ville de Liége, 1856.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 23

significance of the form of the water table, with respect to intake,
movement, and discharge of the ground water, with the resulting
sanitary applications; and of its fluctuations in response to devious
processes of accretion and withdrawal of the ground water. We now
recognize that there may be two or more separate zones of satura-
tion above one another, each with a normal water table, and that
where an impermeable body occurs between a zone of saturation and
an overlying zone of aeration there can be no water table or anything
that functions like a water table.

Gradually we are gaining a better concept of the zone of saturation
itself, recognizing that it may include diverse geologic formations,
with all of the intricate stratigraphy and structure that the geologist
recognizes and much more that is beyond the reach of the present
methods of geology but may nevertheless produce pronounced effects
on the behavior of the water. We now recognize that as a result of the
rock structure the water in the zone of saturation 1s everywhere under
a pressure gradient, which is not a simple linear affair, as in ordinary
hydraulics, but is three-dimensional, and that the ground water is
everywhere moving in the direction of the gradient, chiefly along the
strata, either up or down the dip, but also upward or downward
across the strata.

The concept of the pressure-indicating surface, or piezometric sur-
face, has been recognized for a considerable time, and contour maps
of such surfaces have been made for several decades. Recently we
have come to recognize more clearly that these surfaces are function-
ally different from the water table, and that for any zone of satura-
tion, with its single water table, there may be a series of piezometric
surfaces each representing a different ground-water horizon. The
French have distinguished between the niveau des eaux (water table)
and the niveau piezometric; while the Germans have used the term
Grundwasserspiegel (ground-water mirror) to designate the water
table, and have used for the other concept the French term Piezo-
metrisches Niveau, or some German term such as Wasserdruck-
schicht. |

As in most other fields of ground-water hydrology, the foundations
in this field have been laid by the European investigators.*® Appar-
ently, however, the United States has now taken the lead in this line

43 VeatcH, A. C. Fluctuations of the water level in wells, with special reference to
Long Island, N. Y. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 155. 1906. This paper
gives much information and many references relating to the developments of parts of
this subject prior to 1906.

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

of investigation. The automatic water-stage recorder is coming to be
our principal instrument of precision in ground-water work. It
promises to make ground-water hydrology a more exact science and
may prove to be of value in the study of geologic structure.

Investigations of the relation between fresh and salt water.—The law
of equilibrium between sea water and fresh ground water under non-
artesian conditions was discovered by the Dutch engineer, Badon
Ghyben, and was announced by him in a paper in the Dutch language
in 1887. It seems to have been independently rediscovered about 1900
by Herzberg, of Berlin. This important subject has been further de-
veloped by a number of Dutch, Belgian, and German investigators al-
ready cited. The principles produced by the European workers were
introduced into American ground-water work by Walter E. Spear and
John S. Brown, and have been effectively applied in the Coastal
Plains of the United States proper and in the Hawaiian Islands, under
both artesian and non-artesian conditions.

Investigations of the movement of ground water.’—About 1843 J.
Poiseuille, in connection with his studies of the circulation of the
blood, discovered the law of flow through capillary tubes—namely,
that the rate of flow is proportional to the hydraulic gradient. In 1856,
Darcy verified this law and demonstrated its application to water
percolating through sand. In the 75 years since Darcy’s results were
published, many laboratory investigations of various phases of the
problem of the flow of liquids and gases through permeable materials
have been made.“ About 1899 King reinvestigated the whole sub-
ject; a little later Slichter tested Darcy’s law with lower hydraulic
gradients than had previously been used, in order to approximate
natural conditions more closely; and in 1923, in the hydrologic labora-
tory of the Geological Survey, tests were made under hydraulic
gradients as low as 5 feet to the mile.‘” The results of the work subse-
quent to that of Poiseuille and Darcy support essentially the correct-
ness of the law known as Darcy’s law.

44 SpmaR, WALTER E. Report on water supply from Long Island sources. Bd. of
New York City Water Supply. 1: 149-157. 1912.

Brown, Joun 8. A study of coastal ground water, with special reference to Con-
necticut. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 537: 1925. Contains bibliography
and digest of American and foreign literature on coastal ground water.

45 For more detailed statement of the development of this subject, with numerous
references to publications, see Mninzer, O. E. Methods of estimating ground-water
supplies. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 638: 126-140. 1931.

46 For review of this subject to close of 19th century by King and bibliography by
Slichter see U. 8S. Geol. Survey, Nineteenth Ann. Rept. Pt. 2.

47 Srrarns, Norau D. Laboratory tests on physical properties of water-bearing ma-
terials. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 596: 152-159. 1927.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 25

The pioneer in developing field methods for measuring the flow of
ground water was Adolph Thiem, whose first paper on the subject was
published in 1879. His method was to dig two test wells approximately
in line with the direction of the movement of the ground water as de-
termined from the slope of the water table, then dose the upper well
with salt and at suitable intervals take samples from the lower well
which he tested for their chloride content. A notable advance was
made by Slichter in 1901 when he devised the electrolytic method.

In 1906 Giinther Thiem,*® son of Adolph Thiem, published his
paper describing the field method for determining permeability and
rate of flow from a pumping test and the resultant drawdown in ob-
servation wells. This method is now used in the United States and is
being further investigated and developed by the Geological Survey.*°
More recently we have developed in this country, chiefly through the
work of David G. Thompson,’ a rating-curve method, by which an
empirical relation is established between head and inflow, in areas in
which ground water is extensively used.

Dye tests were made by Doctor Dionis, in France, in 1882, during
an epidemic of typhoid fever, and since that time frequent use has
been made of dyes, chiefly in sanitary investigations, to trace under-
ground streams, such as occur in limestone.*! In 1921 dye was used by
Charles W. Stiles? and his associates in connection with an investiga-
tion at Fort Caswell, N. C., which involved a minute 3-dimensional
survey of the direction and rate of movement of the ground water in
a sand formation.

Molecular physics vn relation to ground-water hydrology.**—The two
principal forces that control the water in the rocks are gravity and
molecular attraction. Many rocks have only very small interstices,
and in these the molecular forces become effective. Indeed, the influ-

48 ToimnmM, GUNTHER. Hydrologische Methoden, Leipzig, 1906.
49 WENZEL, L. K. Recent investigations of Thiem’s method for determining permea-
bility of water-bearing materials. Amer. Geophysical Union Trans., pp. 313-317. 1932.

50 THompsON, Davip G. Ground-water supplies of the Atlantic City region. N. J.
Dept. of Conservation and Development Bull. 30: 35-88. 1928.

5t For historical development and bibliography of this subject see Doun, R. B.
Use of fluorescein in the study of underground waters. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply
Paper 160: 73-85. 1906.

52 Stites, C. W., Crouurst, H. R., THompson, G. E., and Strarns, N. D. Fz-
perimental bacterial and chemical pollution of wells via ground water, with a report on the
geology and ground-water hydrology of the experimental area at Fort Caswell, N.C. U.S.
Pub. Health Service Hygenic Lab. Bull. 147: 1927.

53 For more detailed statement of the development of this subject, with numerous
references, see Mrrnzer, O. E. The occurrence of ground water in the United States,
with a discussion of principles. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 489: 2-101.
1923.

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 24, No. 1

ence of molecular attraction makes the hoch aula of ground water a
quite distinctive subject.

Investigations of capillarity in water-bearing materials were made
about 250 years ago by Perrault, who established the limits of capil-
larity in sand and showed that water absorbed by capillarity can
never form accumulations of free water at higher levels. Since Per-
rault’s time the occurrence and movement of water under molecular
forces in soils and other fine-grained materials have been studied by
many investigators in different countries and for a variety of pur-
poses. Among the distinguished early investigators in this field in the
United States, in the order in which their first important publications
appeared, are Eugene W. Hilgard, 1860; Franklin H. King, 1892; Al-
len Hazen, 1893; and Lyman J. Briggs, 1897. Many other investiga-
tors in this field in both the United States and Europe might be men-
tioned, most of them belonging to the present century. Thus the re-
sults of much critical investigation have become available for the uses
of hydrology. In the hydrologic laboratory of the United States Geo-
logical Survey we are now proceeding with the comprehensive project
of determining the mechanical composition, porosity, moisture equiv-
alent, and permeability of a group of samples from every water-bear-
ing formation in the United States that is amenable to laboratory
methods.

In our quantitative studies of intake, discharge, and safe yield of
ground water, we are vitally concerned with the mechanical composi-
tion and porosity of water-bearing materials, the capillary fringe, the
capillary potential and the laws of capillary movement of water, the
specific retention, the specific yield and other varieties of effective
porosity, and the moisture equivalent, wilting coefficient, and hygro-
scopic coefficient; we are eager to cooperate with the soil physicists
and agricultural engineers in all investigations that involve the mois-
ture properties of fine-textured materials. It appears that the Euro-
pean literature on ground water is somewhat defective in respect to
molecular physics and that the American hydrologists are making a
definite contribution in cultivating this field.

Investigations of discharge of ground water—Ground water is dis-
charged by two processes: the hydraulic process, or discharge through
springs; and the less conspicuous but equally important process of
evaporation—both evaporation directly from the soil and transpira-
tion of plants in areas having a shallow water table.**

*4 For more detailed historical statement and references to the literature regarding

discharge of ground water by transpiration see Mrinzmr, O. E. Plants as indicators
of ground water. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 577. 1927.

JANUARY 15, 19834 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 27

The complex subject of the geologic and hydraulic conditions that
produce springs was one of the first fields of ground-water hydrology
to receive attention and has been given much study. Fluctuations in
the flow of springs and of streams at low stages was given critical
study about the beginning of this century by Maillet, with the pur-
pose of developing methods of forecasting their flow. He mentions a
number of investigators of this subject, dating back to 1863. The sub-
ject has also received some attention in this country, by Arthur C.
Veatch and others. On account of the drought of 1930, new interest
has recently been developed in this subject, and considerable investi-
gation has been started, especially as to the relation of the water
table to the discharge of springs and to the ground-water run-off.

The subject of the discharge of ground water by transpiration of
plants and evaporation from the soil has until recently not received
much attention either in Europe or in the United States, for the reason
that these processes are not readily discerned in humid regions. One
of the most curious defects of the early ground-water literature in this
country is its silence on this subject. Even the geologists who worked
in the arid West took with them the inadequate ideas acquired in the
humid regions and failed at first to appreciate the magnitude of the
ground-water resources of the arid regions because they did not under-
stand the significance of ground-water discharge by transpiration and
soil evaporation.

These processes are, however, conspicuous when once discerned in
arid regions. When we consider the vast development of ground-
water supplies in southern Asia and northern Africa in very ancient
times, we must believe that knowledge of this subject, especially as
to the significance of native plants as indicators of ground water, is
also very ancient. Moses spent a large part of his life in stock-raising
in a desert country, where he doubtless had numerous problems of
water supply and abundant opportunity to observe the relation of the
native vegetation to the occurrence of ground water. Later he was suc-
cessful in the tremendous undertaking of furnishing water supplies in
this desert country to a great host of people, doubtless because of his
first-hand knowledge of ground-water conditions, including the sig-
nificance of desert plants as indicators of ground water. Vitruvius
had a knowledge of plant indicators and evaporation phenomena
which he may have acquired by observations in arid regions. In his
work on architecture he gave a list of plants that indicate ground
water and endeavored to specify the conditions under which they may
be regarded as reliable indicators. He also explained the process of

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 24, No. 1

alkali accumulation by evaporation of ground water. Similar state-
ments in regard to plant indicators are found in the writings of Pliny,
who apparently quoted Vitruvius, and in those of Cassiodorus, in the
sixth century, who obtained his ideas largely from an ‘‘aquilege,”’ or
professional water finder, who came to Rome from the arid regions of
Africa. ‘‘Because of the great aridity of the terranes of his country,”
~ wrote Cassiodorus, ‘‘the art of discovering springs is there cultivated
with the greatest care.”’

Vitruvius and the other Roman writers who have been mentioned
discussed also less tangible methods of locating ground water, such as
color and dampness of the soil, mists rising from the ground early in
the morning, and sponges becoming moist when placed in shallow
holes in the ground. Obviously these methods border closely on divin-
ing, or water-witching, and it is greatly to the credit of Vitruvius,
Pliny, and Cassiodorus that none of them recognized divining or any
other magical method for locating ground water. Although the means
suggested by Vitruvius as aids in finding water may not have had
much value, yet they were serious efforts to discover practicable
methods at a time when the science of geology was still a complete
blank.

That plants in general, and especially forest trees, draw upon the
ground-water supply has been recognized by numerous authorities in
recent times. Most of these have, however, not been much concerned
as to whether the plants withdraw water from the zone of saturation
or merely absorb the soil moisture before it reaches the water table,
and they have not distinguished between different species in this re-
spect. The relation of specific plant species to the water table was
recognized by F. Amy in 1861, Frederick V. Coville in 1893, and the
Danish ecologist Eugen Warming in 1895. The subject of plant indica-
tors was treated at length by Henri Mager® in 1912, and references to
plants that depend on ground water are found in many publications
relating to arid regions.

In the last 25 years the geologists and hydraulic engineers who have
worked on ground-water problems in the western part of the United
States have given considerable study to evaporation of ground water
and to the native plants that habitually feed on ground water, the
depths to which the plants of each species will send their roots to
reach ground water, and the quality of the water that they indicate.
Tank experiments of the rate of discharge of ground water by capil-

53 Macer, HENRI, Op. cit., pp. 310-319.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 29

lary rise and subsequent evaporation were made by Slichter in 1905,
Charles H. Lee in 1910, R. B. Sleight, in 1916, and other investiga-
tors more recently. In 1912 Lee* published the results of his investi-
gations in Owens Valley, Calif., in which he made tank experiments
of the rates of discharge of salt grass with different depths to the water
table, and applied these rates to a map which he made of the salt-
grass area showing depths to the water table. Since that time a num-
ber of investigations have been made in which areas of ground-water
discharge have been mapped and rates of discharge have been ap-
plied thereto.

Daily fluctuations of the water table were observed by King in his
experiments at Madison, Wis., in 1888, and he recognized their sig-
nificance in recording the discharge of ground water through vege-
tation. The method was successfully applied by G. E. P. Smith, in
Arizona, by the use of water-stage recorders on wells in 1917, in tracts
of cottonwood and mesquite, and later also in tracts of salt grass and
alkali sacaton. Smith also developed the theory of upward percola-
tion and showed that the daily vegetal discharge could be computed
from the rate of rise of the water table at the nocturnal mid-stage if
the specific yield were known. More recently Walter N. White,*’ in
his work in Escalante Valley, Utah, devised methods of evaluating the
daily fluctuations in terms of quantity of water discharged, and de-
veloped the method of computing ground-water discharge from the
dry weight of the principal phreatophytes.

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE CHEMISTRY OF GROUND WATER

I will not attempt to sketch the development of our knowledge of
the mineral composition and chemical reactions of the ground water
and of their relation to the occurrence, movement, head, and tempera-
ture of this water. Much good work has been done in this field, which
involves chemistry, physics, and geology; but much remains to be
done. Fortunately, we now have a chemical laboratory in the United
States Geological Survey, devoted entirely to the investigation of the
natural waters, in which, under the direction of W. D. Collins, are
analyzed samples of water from practically all water-bearing forma-
tions in the United States, collected by the geologists who are in-
vestigating these formations.

6 Ler, C. H. An intensive study of the water resources of a part of Owens Valley,
Calif. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 294: 53-60. 1912.

°7 WHITE, WatteR N. A method of estimating ground-water supplies based on dis-
charge by plants and evaporation from soil; results of investigations in Escalante Valley,
Utah. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 659: 1-105. 1932. This paper con-
tains a statement of the work of King and Smith.

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

The subject of the physiological effects of the natural waters is
closely related to, rather than a part of ground-water hydrology. The
subject is inherently so obscure that it lends itself to further befogging
by pseudo-scientists. However, there is here probably a field for
genuine research; at least, this is suggested by the discovery of the
function of iodine in preventing goiter and the recent discovery by
- Margaret Smith®® and her associates of the relation of fluorine to the
puzzling affliction of mottled teeth.

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE BIOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY
OF GROUND WATER

Considerable study has been given to the subject of living organ-
isms in ground water, but less to the hydrologic conditions under
which these organisms exist. Work on the occurrence, viability, and
movement of bacteria in ground water has both sanitary and scien-
tific significance, but is difficult because it must be done under aseptic
conditions. Bacteria are introduced into wells by the drilling proc-
esses, and therefore great caution must be exercised in drawing con-
clusions as to the origin of bacteria delivered by wells, even when the
samples are taken by the most approved methods. The Fort Caswell
investigation, by Stiles and his colaborers, was exceptionally valuable
because of the clear evidence that it produced of the viability and
movement of Bacterium coli in a bed of water-bearing sand, under
rigid bacteriological control and under definitely determined hydro-
logic conditions. However, the results have only limited application,
and further work must be done before broad generalizations can
safely be made.

STATUS AND PROSPECTS OF GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY

It is evident, from the foregoing sketch of the history and develop-
ment of ground-water hydrology, that although much effective work
has in the aggregate been done in this branch of science, it is still in a
formative condition, with relatively few workers, and with an im-
pressive front of problems that are fairly begging for investigation.
The main stimulus and support of ground-water hydrology has al-
ways been the human need for water supplies, and the glory of
ground-water work has been that human betterment, through the de-
velopment of more abundant, convenient, and wholesome water sup-
plies, has followed close in the wake of our work. However, this

58 Smiru, M. C., Lantz, E. M., and Smita, H. V. The cause of mottled enamel, a
defect of human teeth. Univ. of Arizona Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 32. 1931.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY ol

utilitarian urge has become so extreme that at present in this coun-
try practically all funds available for ground-water work must be used
in applying our knowledge to specific ground-water surveys or water-
supply problems, with virtually no opportunity for research work ex-
cept as it is carried on inadequately and almost surreptitiously in con-
nection with these utilitarian projects. We are constantly compelled
to follow the wasteful course of applying the little that we now know
instead of being able to devote a reasonable part of our efforts to the
fundamental task of developing the basic principles of the science so
that in the future we will have something more worth while to apply.
What is primarily needed at present is not more money for ground-
water work but a more rational use of the money that is spent.

The term hydrology has never come into such general use as might
be expected in view of the magnitude and importance of the subject
that it covers. This fact is in itself not of much consequence, but it is,
I suspect, indicative of a real weakness that has pervaded the science,
particularly in so far as it applies to the ground water. Certainly
ground-water hydrology has suffered from the fact that the workers
in the subject have largely been in two groups, inadequately corre-
lated; namely, geologists, who have devoted their attention to the
structure of the water-bearing formations without sufficient under-
standing of the laws of physics that govern the behavior of the water
in them; and hydraulic engineers and physicists, who have studied
the laws of fluid mechanics without sufficient knowledge of geology to
apply their results effectively. It is doubtless desirable that we should
continue to draw our recruits partly from the university departments
of geology and partly from the schools of engineering, with smaller
numbers from the departments of physics and chemistry. Moreover,
it is evident that as the subject of ground-water hydrology develops,
specialization within the subject will become increasingly necessary.
However, to obtain the best results it is imperative that we recognize
more largely that although hydrology is built on geology, physics and
chemistry, it has a distinctive technique and subject matter, much as
we recognize that the science of geology, although it is built on
physics, chemistry, and biology, has its distinctive technique and sub-
ject matter.

While we recognize that ground-water hydrology is largely built on
geology, we should also recognize that, conversely, a properly de-
veloped science of ground-water hydrology will be a substantial aid
to geology, because the materials of geology are to a considerable ex-
tent the product of ground water. Geologists encounter many prob-

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

lems that involve ground-water hydrology, but frequently, because of
the lack of a background in the subject, they are incompetent to deal
effectively with these problems. The proximate reasons for this lack
are obviously to be found in the textbooks of geology, most of which
treat ground water only in a rudimentary if not amateurish manner,
and in the university departments of geology, most of which have
paid almost no attention to the subject. The more fundamental reason
is doubtless to be found in the lack of organized subject matter that
ground-water hydrology has had to offer. Courses devoted largely
to ground-water hydrology are at present given at Harvard and in a
few of the other universities. With the progress that is being made
in the development of the subject, I believe it is safe to predict that
before long no department of geology that undertakes to train gradu-
ate students will be considered complete unless it offers a course in
ground-water hydrology, not merely as a branch of economic geology
but as a part of the foundation upon which the training of a geologist
must be built.

BOTAN Y.—AHawaiian algae collected by Dr. Paul C. Galtsoff.! Mar-
SHALL A. Howes, New York Botanical Garden. (Communicated
by Wiut1amM R. Maxon.)

Under date of March 28, 1932, William R. Maxon, Associate Cura-
tor, Division of Plants, United States National Museum, sent to the
writer for study 23 jars of marine algae, collected in the summer of
1930 by Paul C. Galtsoff of the Bureau of Fisheries. Part of the speci-
mens came from Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, and part of them were from the
Pearl and Hermes Reef, which lies in the mid-Pacific Ocean approxi-
mately in North Latitude 27° 45’ to 28° and in West Longitude
175° 45’ to 176°. Most of the latter material was apparently obtained
from a sand or “‘coral” bottom at depths of 2-67 ft. in water of tem-
peratures ranging from 22.7°C. to 27.3°C. The Pearl and Hermes Reef
lies more than 1200 miles northwest of Oahu, and it has been con-
sidered desirable to keep the two localities separated in the following
list. So far as is known to the writer, no algae have hitherto been re-
ported from the Pearl and Hermes Reef. However, a considerable
number of algae, largely of plankton habitat, were collected in 1896
by H. Schauinsland on Laysan, which lies about 300 miles southeast
of the Pearl and Hermes Reef. These were recorded in 1905 by E.

1 Reeeived August 31, 1933.

JANUARY 15, 1934 HOWE: HAWAIIAN ALGAE 33

Lemmermann,’ who listed 461 species and varieties of algae, chiefly
plankton forms, from the Hawaiian Archipelago. These records and
others were brought together by V. MacCaughey in 1918 in a paper
entitled Algae of the Hawaiian Archipelago.®

ALGAE FROM KANEOHE BAY, OAHU, JULY, 1930

CHLOROPH YCEAE

DICTYOSPHAERIA CAVERNOSA (Forssk.) Bégrg.
Dictyosphaeria favulosa (Ag.) Dee.
DIcTYOSPHAERIA VERSLUYSII Web. v. Bosse
This is distinguished from the preceding by having a solid thallus and
by the numerous needle-like processes from the walls into the cell-cavities.
HALIMEDA DISCOIDEA Decaisne
Dredged in 13 ft. of water.

PHAEKOPHYCEAE

HyDROCLATHRUS CLATHRATUS (Bory) M. A. Howe
Hydroclathrus cancellaius Bory.

‘TURBINARIA ORNATA (Turn.) J. Ag.
SARGASSUM ECHINOCARPUM J. Ag.

Sterile and without vesicles, leaves apparently broader (up to 10 mm.)
than in the type and with more cryptostomata.
SARGASSUM POLYPHYLLUM FISSIFOLIUM Grun.
PADINA COMMERSONII Bory
DicTYOTA ACUTILOBA J. Ag.

Attached to Sargassum polyphyllum fissifolvum.

RHODOPHYCEAE

Trichogloea subnuda sp. nov.’

Thallus strongly calcified (caleareous axis 0.75-1.6 mm. in diameter, the
peripheral free layer about 0.2-0.3 mm. thick), 12-20 cm. long or high, ir-
regularly 3-7 times subdichotomous and here and there subpinnate; outer
cells of cortical filaments subglobose and ellipsoid to subpyriform, 9-21y
(mostly 13-18u) broad, the terminal often smaller (10—-12u); cystocarps

2 Die Algenflora der Sandwich-Inseln. Bot. Jahrb. 34: 607-663, pl. 7, 8. 1905.

$ Bot. Gaz. 65: 42-57, 121-149. :

‘ Fronde valde calcarea (axi calcareo 0.75-1.6 mm. lato, strato peripherico ca.
0.2-0.3 mm. crasso), 12-20 em. alta, irregulariter 3-7-plo subdichotoma et passim sub-
pinnata; cellulis filorum corticalium exterioribus subglobosis et ellipsoideis aut sub-
pyriformibus, 9-21u (plerumque 13-18,) latis, apicalibus saepe minoribus (10—-12,);
cystocarpiis subglobosis, 55-90u in diam., involucro valde reducto, plerumque verti-
cillo processuum uni- aut bi-cellularium uno constanti, in maturitate pro parte maxima
ey monoica, antheridiis et procarpiis plerumque late remotis, aut aliquando di-
oica (?).

Specimen typicum in sinu “‘Kaneohe’”’ dicto, insulae ‘‘Oahu’’ hawaiiensis, Jul. 1930,
Paul C. Galtsoff legit. Trichogloea lubrica Butters, Minnesota Bot. Stud. 3: 11-21. pl.
5, 6, 1903. Non Trichogloea lubrica (Harv.) J. Ag.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

ied

1Z€.

Natural si

ial

More than half of the holotype dr

preserved mater

id-

ichogloea subnuda
from flu

Tr.

JANUARY 15, 1934 HOWE: HAWAIIAN ALGAE 30

subglobose, 55—90u in diameter, the involucre very rudimentary, usually re-
duced to a single whorl of mostly unicellular excrescences, commonly con-
cealed at maturity; apparently monoicous, with a somewhat wide separa-
tion of antheridia and procarps, and with a tendency to dioicism. |[F1GuRz 1.|

Type specimen collected in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, by Paul C. Galtsoff,
July, 1930. The holotype is divided between The New York Botanical Garden
and the United States National Museum.

An excellent detailed description of Trzchogloea subnuda, with illustra-
tions, was published, under the name Trichogloea lubrica (Harv.) J. Ag., by
F. K. Butters in 1903.5 This description was based on fluid-preserved ma-
terial, collected by Josephine E. Tilden, June 13, 1900, at Kahuku Point,
Oahu. Dried specimens from the same collection were distributed as No.
419 of her American Algae, under the name Nemalion ramulosum Harv.

Fig. 2.—Trichogloea lubrica. Cotype in the British Museum. Xj.

This name belongs to a ‘‘species inquirenda”’ from New Zealand, the de-
scription of which, “fronde vermiformi compressa (2-3 lineas lata)’’ does
not seem to fit the Hawaiian plant. Miss Tilden describes the color (which is
lacking in Galtsoff’s fluid-preserved specimen) as ‘‘brownish-red.”’

The drawing of specific lines in the genus Trichogloea is a bit difficult.
The color, the size, the degree of calcification, the mode of branching, the
size and form of the cells of the corticating filaments, and the monoicous or

pon Observations on Trichogloea lubrica. Minnesota Bot. Studies. 3: 11-21, pl. 5, 6s

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

dioicous distribution of the sexual cells all seem to be subject to considerable
variation. The most stable characters are found in the cystocarp and more
particularly in the development of the rudimentary pericarp just beneath
it. The writer has enjoyed the privilege of examining the types, or at least
authentic specimens, of all the species that have been referred to the genus.
Trichogloea subnuda differs from all of them, or at least from the two legally
published species, Trichogloea lubrica (Harv.) J. Ag. (type from Ooleva,
Friendly Islands) and T. requieniz (Mont.) Kiitz. (type from the Red Sea),
in the greatly reduced or vestigial character of the rudimentary involucre.

Fig. 3.—Trichogloea requientt. One of two original specimens in
the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Natural size.

This consists commonly of a single verticil or pair of unicellular or two-
celled excrescences or rudimentary bracteal filaments immediately below
the auxiliary stalk-cell of the cystocarp. Rarely there is a one- or two-celled
outgrowth from a lower cell (see Butters, op. cit. f. 11, 13, 15, and 16). These

JANUARY 15, 1934 HOWE: HAWAIIAN ALGAE oO”

reduced bracts are nearly always wholly concealed by the development of
the cystocarp. In Trichogloea lubrica and T. requieniz, the cystocarp is sub-
tended by a usually conspicuous rudimentary involucre, consisting of 3-5
whorls of simple or once or twice furcate filaments.* The cystocarps in these
two species are dome-shaped, cylindric-dome-shaped, subconic, or occasion-
ally subglobose, and 90—140yu in maximum diameter, while those of Tricho-
gloea subnuda are subglobose and 55—90y in diameter. Less stable distinctive
characters of Trichogloea subnuda are found in its heavier calcification and
its more dichotomous branching (compare Ficurss 1, 2, and 3).

Laurencia yamadana sp. nov.’

Frond spreading or reclinate, 5-7 em. (or more?) high or broad, in branch-
ing irregularly 3 or 4 times compounded (or when pressed and dried,
pseudo-tri-quadripinnate), the branches mostly divaricate, the primary

Fig. 4.—Laurencia yamadana. Holotype, left from fluid; right,
same specimen dried. Natural size.

6 See Okamura’s representation of the cystocarp of T. lubrica, Icon. Jap. Alg. 4:
pl. 197, fig. 6. 1923.

7 Fronde effusa aut reclinata, 5-7 cm. (an plus?) alta aut lata, irregulariter 3—4-ties
compositi-ramosa (aut, compressa et exsiccata, pseudo-tri-quadripinnata), ramis
plerumque divaricatis, primariis 2-4 cm. longis, ramulis ultimis clavatis obtusis et
2-3 mm. longis aut plerumque subtereti-turbinatis aut verrucaeformibus et 0.45—0.8 mm.
longis, quoquoverse egredientibus, pro parte maxima spatiis suis longitudinibus
aequalibus separatis; caulibus vel ramis primariis teretibus aut aegre compressa, circa
1-1.3 mm. crassa, cellulis superficialibus angulati-suborbicularibus, 20—45y latis, in
sectione transversali parum altioribus quam latis, denique saepe separantibus, ramu-
lorum ultimorum cellulis superficialibus ovalibus aut subellipticis a superficie visis,
16—40y in diam. max., parietibus crassis, in sectione transversali cellulis valliformibus,
plerumque bis altioribus quam latis, aut in regione apicali ter altioribus; cellularum
medullarium parietibus partes incrassatas non ostendentibus; partes aliae desunt.

Cum Hypnea nidifica J. Ag. consociatam, speciem Laurenciae palisadae Yamadae
affinem, in sinu ‘‘Kaneohe’”’ dicto, insulae ‘‘Oahu”’ hawaiiensis, Jul. 1930, Paul C.
Galtsoff legit.

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

2-4 em. long, the ultimate branchlets clavate-obtuse and 2-3 mm. long or
mostly subterete-turbinate or verrucaeform and only 0.45-0.8 mm. long,
emerging in various planes, for the most part separated by spaces equal to
their own length; main axes terete or very slightly flattened, about 1-1.3 mm.
in diameter, their surface cells angulate-suborbicular, 20—45y in diameter,
rather thin-walled, often separating, in transverse section slightly higher
than broad; surface cells of ultimate branchlets often oval or subelliptic
with longer axis transverse, 16—40u in maximum diameter, thick-walled, in
transverse section palisade-like, commonly twice as high as broad, or, in
apical region, thrice as high; walls of medullary cells without lenticular
thickenings; other parts wanting. [FicuRE 4.]

Apparently associated with Hypnea nidifica, near Wilcox wharf, Kaneohe
Bay, Oahu, Paul C. Galtsoff, July, 1930. The holotype is divided between
The New York Botanical Garden and the United States National Museum.

Laurencia yamadana belongs to Yamada’s section Palisadae and is prob-
ably more allied to his Laurencia palisada® of Japan and Formosa than to
his L. antermedia of Japan. It appears to differ from Laurencia palisada in
its less distichous branching and in its shorter, more divaricate, and less
capitate ultimate branchlets.

Hypnea NipiFica J. Ag. Originally described from the Hawaiian Islands.

CHONDRIA TENUISSIMA (Good. & Woodw.) Ag., var. Apices of the ramuli
are occasionally broad and obtuse as in var. zntermedia Grun.

POLYSIPHONIA TONGATENSIS Harv.
ALGAE FROM PEARL AND HERMES REEF

CHLOROPH YCEAE
Microdictyon setchellianum M. A. Howe, nom. nov.

Microdictyon velleyanum, Univ. Calif. Pub. Bot. 14: 561. f. 85-92. 1929.
Not Decaisne, Arch. Mus. Paris. 2: 116. 1841.
In 23 ft. of water, temp. 25.5°C., Pearl and Hermes Reef, Station 31,
Galtsoff, July 23, 1930. Filaments 230-450u broad. Only a few fragments,
attached to a Laurencia.

The name Microdictyon velleyanum Decaisne was manifestly proposed as
a substitute for Velley’s Conferva uwmbilicata from New South Wales. The
circumstance that Decaisne at the same time confused with it a very dif-
ferent plant from the Sandwich Islands does not alter the fact that, so far
as the technicalities of publication are concerned, the name Microdictyon
velleyanum rests solely on Decaisne’s citation of Velley’s description and
illustration of the Australian plant (Trans. Linn. Soc. 5: 169. pl. 7. 1800).

CAULERPA SERRULATA (Forssk.) J. Ag.
Caulerpa freycinetii Ag.
In 2-4 ft., Sta. 42. -

8 YamaDA, Y. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 16: 196. fig: c and pl. 4. fig. a. 1931.

JANUARY 15, 1934 HOWE: HAWAIIAN ALGAE 39

HALIMEDA CUNEATA Hering.

In 2-4 ft., Sta. 42.
HALIMEDA OPUNTIA (L.) Lamour.

A rather small-segmented form, in 22 ft., Sta. 28.
CoDIUM CORONATUM Setchell

In 10 ft., Sta. 68. Type from Tahiti.

PHAEOPHYCEAE

CoLPOMENIA SINUOSA (Roth) Derb. & Sol., forma.
Attached to Halimeda opuntia in 22 ft., Sta. 28.
HyYDROCLATHRUS CLATHRATUS (Bory) Howe
Hydroclathrus cancellatus Bory
In 2-4 ft., Sta. 42.
TURBINARIA ORNATA (Turn.) J. Ag.
In 2-4 ft., Sta. 42; in 5 ft., Sta. 41.
SARGASSUM PILULIFERUM (Turn.) Ag.
Floating, Sta. 84, Aug. 16; also, in 6 ft., Sta. 38.

Of the four plants collected at Station 38, one is copiously supplied with
the air-vesicles from which the species derived its name, one shows only one
vesicle, and the other two have none. The plants from Station 38 differ from
the floating specimen of Station 84 in their lighter color, in their often more
setaceous leaf-segments and more obscure midribs, and in the somewhat
shorter pedicels of the vesicles. They seem to approach Sargassum setaceum
Yendo,? the type of which, like that of S. piluliferum, is Japanese, but most
of the leaf-segments are distinctly flattened and show an obvious costa. The
vesicles in both the floating and attached forms have occasional crypto-
stomata, a character that Yendo denies to S. piluliferwm and allows to the
upper and median vesicles of his S. setacewm.

SARGASSUM VULGARE LINEARIFOLUM J. Ag. (?)

In 24 ft. of water on coral and sand [probably unattached], Sta. 60. The
specimen agrees very well with Yendo’s figure of this variety (op. cit. pl.
17, f. 5), as represented in Japan.

RHODOPHYCEAE

Laurencia galtsoffii sp. nov.!°

Forming compact cushions 1-2 em. high, branching irregular, for the
most part subdichotomous or somewhat corymbose, the main divisions

® Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo. 2112: 60. pl. 7. figs. 5-7. 1907.

10 Frondibus caespites compactas 1—2 em. altas formantibus, plerumque irregulariter
ramosis, plerumque subdichotomis aut aliquando corymbosis, segmentis principalibus
teretibus aut subteretibus, plerumque 0.45-0.78 mm. crassis; ramulis terminalibus
teretibus truncati-obtusis, 0.4-0.62 mm. crassis, juvenilibus aliquando subturbinatis;
cellulis superficialibus a superficie visis plus minusve hexagonis, in partibus veteribus
oblongis, 35-1104 in diam. max., in sectione transversali suborbicularibus, circa

Type, top from fluid, lower same
material dried. Natural size.

Fig. 5.—Laurencia galtsoffir.

30—52u altis, in partibus junioribus plerumque leviter mammiformi-prominentibus,
parietibus 5—15yu crassis; cellularum medullarium parietibus incrassationibus lenticu-

laribus aut annularibus saepe instructis; partes aliae desunt. ;
In profunditate 3 m. in loco ‘‘Pearl and Hermes Reef” dicto, Oceani Pacifici, Lat.

27°52’35” Bor. Long. 175°47’ Occ., Paul C. Galtsoff legit. Species L. pannosae Zanard.
forsitan affinis est.

JANUARY 15, 1934 HOWE: HAWAIIAN ALGAE 4]

terete or subterete, mostly 0.46 to 0.78 mm. in diameter; terminal branches
cylindric and truncate-obtuse, 0.4—0.62 mm. in diameter, the younger oc-
casionally subturbinate; surface cells more or less hexagonal, becoming ob-
long in older parts, 35-110u in maximum diameter, cell walls 5—15yu thick,
cells rounded and nearly isodiametric in transverse section, about 30-52u
high, usually lightly mammiform-protuberant in younger parts, walls of
medullary cells often with lenticular, arcuate, or somewhat annulate thick-
enings; other parts wanting. [F1cuRE 5.]

On sand and coral bottoms, in ten feet of water, temp. 26.4°C., Pearl and
Hermes Reef, Station 68, Lat. 27° 52’ 35’’ N., Long. 175° 47’ W., Paul C.
Galtsoff, August 2, 1930. The original material, consisting of one clump of
more than one plant, is divided between The New York Botanical Garden
and the United States National Museum.

From Laurencia pannosa Zanard. of Sarawak, which we know only from
original description and figures, L. galtsoffii would appear to differ in its
cylindric rather than verrucaeform ultimate branches and in its more
dichotomous-corymbose branching; from L. nana Howe of the Bahama
Islands (this species also often has lenticular thickenings in the walls of
its medullary cells), in its absence of rhizoidal haptera and its coarser seg-
ments (0.4-0.78 mm. vs. 0.1-0.45 mm.); from L. pygmaea Weber-van Bosse,
of the Chagos Archipelago, in its more dichotomo-corymbose branching
and coarser segments; from L. humilis Setchell & Gardner of Clarion Island,
Revillagigedo Islands, in being much more slender and more freely branched,
in its more polygonal surface cells, and in the usually manifest lenticular
thickenings of the walls of the medullary cells; and from L. corymbosa J.
Ag. of the Cape of Good Hope, in its much smaller size..

Some of the plants grow attached to another species of Laurencia, pos-
sibly a reduced multifarious form of the following Laurencza sp.

LAURENCIA Sp.

Fronds 3—5 cm. high, rather distinctly compressed, subpinnate or here and
there subbipinnate or irregularly branched from a percurrent axis, main axis
1-2 mm. broad; ultimate branchlets verrucaeform to cylindric-clavate;
surface cells mostly hexagonal, 30—45u in diameter, rather thin-walled, often
broader than high in transverse section, those in apical regions usually
mammiform-protuberant; walls of medullary cells apparently without len-
ticular thickenings; stichidia short.

In 23 feet of water, on coral sand, Station 31, July 23. Only five or six
fronds were collected. Some of them are distinctly complanate and very
nearly distichous; others show branching in various planes. The species may
be allied to Laurencia cartilaginea Yamada from Japan and L. tropica
Yamada from the Marianne Islands, but the plants are smaller and simpler
than in either. A. A. Heller’s no. from 2158 Oahu, distributed as Laurencia
pinnatifida, probably represents the same species.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

GONIOLITHON FRUTESCENS Fosl.
In 2-4 ft., Sta. 42.

Porolithon sp. and Lithophyllum sp. occur in small quantity (so far as
shown by specimens obtained) in 5 ft. of water on a bottom of “broken
corals,” at Station 41. More abundant than either of these is a mysterious
compact calcareous crust that shows on decalcification delicate intertangled
short-celled filaments 1—2u broad. No such slender filaments have been re-
ported for the Lithothamnieae, so far as is known to the writer. No repro-
ductive cells have been identified with certainty. Apparently the same thing
occurs in the West Indies. (Compare Howe No. 4592, from Jamaica, which
is a brilliant brick-red when living. )

BOTANY .—WNew plants mainly from western South America.—IV
ELLswortu P. Kiuuip, U. 8. National Museum.

Most of the species described in the present paper are based upon
specimens which I have compared with type or authenticated material
at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the British Museum (Natural
History), the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, the Botanisches
Museum, Berlin, and the Jardin Botanico, Madrid. To the directors
of these institutions I wish to express my appreciation of the many
courtesies extended during the course of these studies.

Pilea ulei Killip, sp. nov.

Herba dioica glaberrima; stipulae minutae, triangulares, caducae; folia si-
milia et subaequalia, ovata vel elliptico-ovata, apice caudato-acuminata, basi
acuta vel subobtusa, serrata, dentibus apiculatis, triplinervia, nervis ad
tertiam partem laminae attingentibus, cystolithis supra linearibus subtus
punctiformibus; inflorescentia 9 cymoso-paniculata, pedunculis et ramis
tenerrimis, achaenis ovatis minutis laevibus.

Plant herbaceous, succulent, 35 em. or more high, glabrous throughout;
stipules minute, triangular, soon deciduous; petioles slender, 1 to 2.5 cm.
long, the lowermost up to 5 cm. long; leaves of a node similar and subequal,
ovate or elliptic-ovate, 5 to 10 cm. long, 1.5 to 3.5 em. wide, caudate-acumi-
nate at apex, acute or rarely subobtuse at base, serrate except at base (teeth
strongly ascending, apiculate), triplinerved (nerves extending to upper third
of blade), thin-membranous when dry, the cystoliths linear on upper sur-
face, punctiform on lower surface; plants dioecious; pistillate inflorescence
diffusely cymose-paniculate, up to 6 cm. long, the peduncle and the branches
very slender, the perianth segments unequal, the largest barely 0.4 mm. long;
achenes ovate, minute, 0.5 to 0.6 mm. long, smooth.

Type in the herbarium of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, col-
lected on moist rocks, Serra do Oratorio, State of Santa Catharina, Brazil,
April, 1889, by E. Ule (no. 1194).

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. For
preceding parts of this series see this JOURNAL. 16: 565-5738. 1926; 19: 191-195. 1929;
21: 347-353. 1931. Received September 16, 1933.

JANUARY 1d, 1934 KILLIP: NEW PLANTS 43

This species apparently is most closely related to the Peruvian P. cztriodora,
differing in having caudate-acuminate, sharply serrate leaves (obtuse or
short-acuminate and crenate-serrate in P. citriodora), bearing linear cysto-
liths on the upper surface and punctiform ones on the lower surface. The
leaves are suggestive of P. rhizobola, of Brazil, but their cystoliths are very
different.

Pouzolzia scaberrima Killip, sp. nov.

Ramuli subquadrangulares, dense villosuli; folia alternata, elliptico-
lanceolata, apice attenuato-acuminata, concoloria, glabra, supra valde
punctato-scabra, subtus laevia; flores in glomerulis axillaribus, sessilibus,
androgyneis; calyx o fere ad basim 4-lobatus; staminia 4; calyx 9 bi-
dentatus, puberulus, stigmate filiforme, caduco; achaenia lateovoidea,
laevia.

Branchlets subquadrangular, densely villosulous; stipules narrowly lance-
linear, 7 to 8 mm. long, about 1.5 mm. wide at base, subulate at apex, pale
at margin, sparingly pilosulous without, glabrescent within; petioles sub-
quadrangular, 1 to 2.5 cm. long, densely villosulous; leaves alternate,
elliptic, lanceolate, 8 to 13 cm. long, 3 to 4 cm. wide, attenuate-acuminate
at apex, rounded at base, symmetrical, entire, 3-nerved (lateral nerves
extending to slightly above middle of blade), reticulate-veined (nerves and
veins pale beneath), concolorous, glabrous, strongly punctate-scabrous
above, smooth beneath; flowers in dense sessile androgynous axillary glom-
erules; staminate flowers about 1.5 mm. wide, 4-lobed nearly to base, the
lobes triangular-acute, apiculate, puberulent, the stamens 4, the filaments
about 0.8 mm. long, the anthers suborbicular; pistillate perianth obscurely
striate, bidentate, puberulent; stigma filiform, soon deciduous; achenes
broadly ovoid, about 1.2 mm. long, subacuminate, smooth, lustrous, light
brown.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 703,919, collected at Santa
Marta, Department of Magdalena, Colombia, in 1898 or 1899, by H. H.
Smith (no. 1436). Duplicates at Berlin, British Museum, Field Museum,
Kew, and New York.

In the general shape of the leaves this species resembles P. obliqua and
P. petiolata. Both of those plants have densely pubescent foliage, not at all
scabrous. In P. obliqua, moreover, the leaves are nearly sessile and strongly
oblique.

Phenax weddellianus Killip, sp. nov.

Planta suffrutescens, caule tenue subquadrangulato; folia parva, ovata
vel ovato-lanceolata, acuta, trinervia, integerrima vel paucidentata, supra
sparse strigillosa, subtus pilosula; flores in glomerulis parvis laxis, andro-
gyneis vel rare unisexualibus; flores o pedicellati, perigonio fere ad medium
trilobato, lobis triangulato-ovatis, staminibus suborbiculatis; flores 9
absque perianthio, bracteis 3 partim connatis achaenia terna includentibus;
achaenia anguste ovoidea, acuminata, sparse villosula.

Plant suffrutescent, the stem slender, up to 3 mm. thick, subquadrangular,
essentially glabrous; stipules lanceolate, about 1.5 mm. long and 0.6 mm.
wide, deciduous; petioles 1 to 2 mm. long; leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate,
5 to 18 mm. long, 3 to 8 mm. wide, acute at apex, subacute at base, entire or

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. I

with 1 or 2 coarse teeth on either side, 3-nerved, sparingly strigillose above,
sparingly to densely pilosulous beneath; inflorescence axillary, loosely
flowered, shorter than the petioles, the flower-clusters androgynous, rarely
unisexual; staminate flowers pedicellate, the pedicels 1 to 1.2 mm. long, the
perianth 2 mm. long, glabrous, 3-lobed nearly to middle, the lobes triangular-
ovate, the stamens 3, suborbicular, about 0.8 mm. long; pistillate perianth
none, the achenes in groups of 3, enclosed by 3, partially coalescent, finely
villosulous dark bracts 1.5 to 2 mm. long; the stigma elongate-filiform;
achenes narrowly ovoid, 1 mm. long, acuminate, dull, very sparingly
pilosulous.

Type in the herbarium of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, col-
lected in the Department of Cuzco, Peru, October, 1839, to February, 1840,
by Claude Gay.

Weddell has noted upon the label accompanying this curious specimen
‘“‘Phenacis species anomala aut genus novum ille affine.’”’ It may well repre-
sent a genus distinct from Phenaz, and if so, one that is undescribed. In all
the species of Phenax with which I am acquainted the naked achenes are
surrounded by free bracts which become more or less spreading and are not
at all perianth-like. In this plant the bracts are partly united and enclose
three achenes, their stigmas long-exserted, the unopened cluster giving the
appearance of a perianth with three stigmas. In general habit, especially in
the shape of the leaves and the loose flower clusters, the plant resembles
Phenaz laziflorus.

Gaiadendron macranthum Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex ubique glaber; folia opposita, obovata, obtusa, basi cuneata, sub-
tus dense punctata; inflorescentia racemosa, floribus ternis, lateralibus
breviter pedicellatis, terminali sessili; calyx cylindricus limbo patente in-
tegro; petala 7 libra, anguste linearia; filamenta petala subaequantia.

Shrub about 2 meters high, glabrous throughout; branches subterete;
leaves opposite, obovate, 3.5 to 5 em. long, 1.5 to 2.3 cm. wide, obtuse at
apex, cuneate at base, short (about 4 mm.)-petioled, 1-nerved (nerve im-
pressed above), densely punctate beneath, coriaceous, lustrous; inflorescence
racemose, 10 to 15 cm. long, the branches opposite, divaricate, squarrose;
bracts similar in texture, shape, and punctation to the leaves, 2.5 to 0.8 cm.

long, 1 to 0.4 cm. wide, persistent; flowers in three’s, the lateral short- —

pediceled, the middle sessile, the bractlets ovate, 5 to 7 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm.
wide, concave, persistent; calyx cylindric, about 4 mm. long, 2 mm. in di-
ameter, the margin flaring, entire; petals 7, distinct to base, narrowly
linear, 3 to 3.5 cm. long, about 1 mm. wide, acute, orange; filaments sub-
equal to the petals, the anthers narrowly oblong, about 4 mm. long; style
subequal to the filaments.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.
562,433, collected at Putis, Choimacota Valley, Province of Huanta, De-
partment of Ayacucho, Peru, altitude 3,400 to 3,500 meters. February 27
to March 12, 1926, by A. Weberbauer (no. 7523).

This is one of the non-parasitic Loranthaceae, true trees or shrubs, which
have been placed in various genera, but now are usually referred to Gazaden-

JANUARY 15, 1934 KILLIP: NEW PLANTS 45

dron. From G. punctatum, G. tagua, and G. puracense the proposed species
differs in the large leaf-like bracts, larger bractlets, and longer petals.

Phrygilanthus linearis Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex parasiticus glaber; rami teretes; folia alterna vel subopposita,
linearia, obtusa, sessilia, obscure l-nervia; inflorescentia subcorymbosa,
floribus ternis pedicellatis; bracteolae triangulari-ovatae, persistentes;
cupula teres, denticulata; calyx quam cupula paullo longior, subinteger;
petala anguste linearia, acuta.

Parasitic shrub, glabrous throughout; branches terete, grass-green, the
internodes 2 to 3.5 cm. long; leaves alternate or subopposite, linear, 2 to
3.0 cm. long, 1.5 to 5 mm. wide, obtuse, sometimes minutely mucronulate
at apex, slightly narrowed at base, sessile, obscurely 1-nerved, fleshy; in-
florescence subcorymbose, compact, the flowers in three’s, pedicellate, the
peduncles and pedicels squarrose, the pedicels 3 to 5 mm. long; bractlets
triangular-ovate, 2 to 3 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. wide, concave, persistent;
cupula cupuliform, 2 to 2.5 mm. long, terete, denticulate; calyx slightly
longer than the cupula, subentire; petals 6, narrowly linear, 2 to 2.5 cm.
long, 0.7 to 0.8 mm. wide, acute, bright red or scarlet; filaments very
slender, about 2 cm. long; anthers linear-oblong, 3 mm. long; style subequal
to or slightly longer than the petals; fruit ovoid.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,281,718, collected at Talara,
Province of Paita, Department of Piura, Peru, September 16, 1925, by
Oscar Haught (no. 9). Represented also by Weberbauer’s 7765, collected at
La Brea, in the same province, and perhaps by Townsend’s 823, the latter
having leaves up to 6 em. long and 1.5 cm. wide.

This species is nearest to P. flagellaris (Cham. & Schlecht.) Eichl., a plant
ranging from southern Brazil to Argentina, which has a longer cupula,
with more pronounced teeth, and deciduous bractlets. The proposed species
does not appear to have the flagellate habit of P. flagellarzs. The leaves are
suggestive of P. cunezfolius (R. & P.) Eichl., but in that species the flowers
are solitary. Weberbauer notes that the plant was parasitic on species of
Acacia. Haught states, “Piva, a slender semi-trailing plant growing nearly
always on algarroba [Prosopis limensis]. The branches reach a length of 6
to 8 feet. Flowers are produced throughout the year, and are bright red.
The two species of Loranthaceae commonly found here [this and Psvtta-
canthus obovatus] are not infested by insects to any extent, but goats seem to
prefer them to any other plant. Goat-herders break pina off trees with long
poles for their animals.”’

Phrygilanthus tumbecensis Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex parasiticus glaber; folia opposita, anguste oblonga, subfalcata, ob-
tusa, sessilia; inflorescentia laxe corymbosa; bracteolae triangulari-ovatae,
concavae; cupula patelliformis, remote denticulata; petala linearia, acuta.

Parasitic shrub, glabrous throughout; branches terete, drying dark brown;
leaves opposite, narrowly oblong, subfalcate, 5 to 10 em. long, 1.5 to 3 cm.
wide, obtuse at apex, narrowed at base, sessile, 1-nerved with numerous ob-
scure ascending secondary nerves, fleshy; inflorescence loosely corymbose,

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. I

the peduncles stout, squarrose, about 1.5 cm. long, the secondary branches
opposite, stout, the flowers in three’s; bractlets triangular-ovate, 2 to 3 mm.
long, concave, fleshy, subpersistent, cupula patelliform, 2 to 2.5 mm. long,
4 to 5mm. wide, remotely denticulate; calyx subcylindric, slightly exceeding
the cupula, denticulate; petals 6, linear, 3 to 4 cm. long, about 1 mm. wide,
acute, ‘‘fiery red with yellow point’’; anthers linear, about 4 mm. long; style
about 4 cm. long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,420,154, collected in moun-
tains east of Hacienda Chicama, Province of Tumbez, Department of
Tumbez, Peru, altitude 500 to 700 meters, February, 1927, by A. Weber-
bauer (no. 7668).

This is a much coarser plant than P. lonearis, to which it appears to be
most nearly allied. The leaves are opposite and much broader, and they have
a very blunt apex. The inflorescence is few-flowered and the petals are larger.

All the specimens of Loranthaceae discussed in the present paper I have
compared with material at the herbaria at Berlin.

Hesperomeles goudotiana (Dene.) Killip

Osteomeles goudotiana Dene. Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. 10: 182. 1874.

Specimens examined: Colombia: Cundinamarca: Bogota, Mutis 4328
(Madrid, U. S. N. M.), Goudot (type, Paris); Triana 4182 (Berlin, Paris,
U.S. N. M.); Perez 1092 (U.S. N. M.).

I fully agree with Macbride, Schneider, and others that Osteomeles should
be restricted to the Hawaiian and Chinese species.

Hesperomeles pachyphylla (Pittier) Killip.

Osteomeles pachyphylla Pittier, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 20: 109. 1918.

Specimens examined: Colombia: Paramo de Buena Vista, Huila Group,
Central Cordillera, Pzttver 1183 (U. S. N. M., type). Ecuador: Pichincha:
Turubamba Valley, Firmin 298 (U.S. N. M.). Alangasi, Fzrmin 610 (U.S.
IN. MM).

Hesperomeles nitida Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex, ramis adultis cinereis, glabris, junioribus rufo-hirsuto-tomentosis;
folia late ovata vel suborbiculata, apice rotundata, basi cordulata, crenata —
vel crenato-serrata, supra nitida, pilis nigrescentibus tenuiter hirsutula,
subtus in costa dense rufo-hirsutula; inflorescentiae pauciflorae; fructus
globosus, ruber, rufo-hirsuto-tomentosus, lobis calycis triangularibus acic-
ularibus. |

Compact shrub, 1 to 2 meters high, the older branchlets cinereous, glab-
rous, the younger rufo-hirsute-tomentose; leaves broadly ovate or sub-
orbicular, 1.5 to 2.5 ecm. long, 1.5 to 3 em. wide, rounded at apex, cordulate
at base, short-petioled (petioles up to 5 mm. long, rufo-hirsutulous),
crenate or crenate-serrate, above lustrous and finely hirsutulous with
blackish hairs, becoming glabrous, beneath densely rufo-hirsutulous on
midnerve, less densely so elsewhere, the principal lateral nerves 12 to 14 to
a side; corymbs few (up to 7)-flowered, the branches densely rufo-hirsute-
tomentose, the common peduncle up to 8 mm. long at fruiting time; fruit

JANUARY 15, 1934 KILLIP: NEW PLANTS 47

globose, 5 to 6 mm. in diameter, red, rufo-hirsute-tomentose, becoming
glabrous except at top and bottom; calyx lobes triangular, 1.5 to 3 mm. long,
1.5 to 2 mm. wide, acuminate, acicular, rufo-hirsute-tomentose..,

Type in the U. S. National Museum, no. 1,353,547, collected at edge of
woods, near La Baja, Department of Santander, Eastern Cordillera of
Colombia, altitude 3,500 meters, January 24, 1927, by E. P. Killip and A. C.
Smith (no. 18063).

The nature of the indument on the foliage and fruit distinguishes this
from H. goudotiana and H. obtuszfolia, species which it resembles in the
general shape of the leaves. The plant is known as “‘mortifia,”’ and the fruit
is said to be edible.

Rubus bogotensis eglandulosus Killip, subsp. nov.

Planta pilis flavescentibus eglandulosis dense et molliter hirsuto-tomen-
tosa.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,354,798, collected on the
eastern slope of the Paramo de Santurban, toward Mutiscua, Eastern Cor-
dillera of Colombia, altitude 3,600 to 3,900 meters, February 20, 1927,
by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 19595).

Acaciella curassavica Britton & Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex glaber vel sparse strigosus; folia 10-14 em. longa, pinnis 2—7-jugis,
foliolis 6—-21-jugis, obtusis, oblongis, ellipticis, vel supremis obovatis; capi-
tula in paniculis laxis terminalibus, oblonga vel subglobosa; legumen ob-
longum, 5-8 cm. longum, 1.2—1.5 cm. latum, inter semina impressum, ob-
tusum, basi late cuneatum; semina lenticularia, suborbicularia.

Shrub up to 2 meters high, glabrous, or the young twigs and leaf-rachis
sparingly strigose; leaves 10 to 14 em. long, the pinnae 2 to 7 pairs, the
rachilla very slender, the leaflets 6 to 21 pairs, oblong or elliptic (or the upper
pair obovate), membranous, dull, obtuse, or rounded, 4 to 9 mm. long, the
midvein slender, the lateral venation delicate, or obscure; heads in loose
terminal panicles, oblong or subglobose, in bud 4 to 6 mm. long; peduncles
1 to 1.5 em. long, nearly filiform; pedicels about 0.4 mm. long; calyx about
1 mm. long, 5-toothed; corolla about 2 mm. long, 5-lobed; stamens many,
distinct, about 5 mm. long; legume oblong, transversely forked-veined, ob-
tuse, apiculate, impressed between the 5 to 8 seeds, 5 to 8 cm. long, 1.2 to
1.5 em. wide, the base broadly cuneate, the stipe 6 to 10 mm. long; seeds
lenticular, suborbicular, brown, faintly variegated, about 3 mm. in diameter,
the raphe oblong.

Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected on
limestone rocks near Willemstad, Curacao, March 20 to 27, 1913, by N. L.
Britton and J. A. Shafer (no. 2943). Duplicate in U. S. National Herbarium.

Additional material examined, all from Curagao: Killip & Smith 21039,
21055, 21063; Boldingh 5560; Curran & Haman 137, 251, 255; Rose 22014.

This species was recorded by Boldingh? as Acacia villosa (Sw.) Willd., a
species endemic in Jamaica, and was thus referred to also by Urban, who
noted, however, that it differed from the Jamaica plant in several details.

> Fl. Ned. W. Ind. 206.

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. I

Derris amazonica Killip

Lonchocarpus negrensis Benth. Journ. Linn. Soc. 4: Suppl. 98, 1860. Not Der-
ris negrensis Benth. |
Specimens examined: Brazil: Amazonas: Rio Negro, Spruce 1671 (type,

Kew). Along Rio Negro, above Mandos, Killip & Smith 30044. Man4os,

Killip & Smith 30191. Sao Paulo de Olivenca, Ducke 23400. Para: Gurupa,

Ducke 17201.

One of the specimens which Mr. Smith and I collected has mature fruits,
the broad wings of which show that the species belongs to Derris rather than
to Lonchocarpus. The legumes of the type specimen are not well developed.

Under The American Code of Nomenclature the name for this plant would
be Deguelia amazonica (not Deguelia negrensis Taub.).

Tropaeolum longifiorum Killip, sp. nov.

Herba scandens, glaberrima; stipulae lineares, subpersistentes; folia pel-
tata, fere ad medium septemlobata, lobis obovatis, apice latioribus, rotun-
datis, minute calloso-mucronulatis; pedunculi longissimi quam folia multo
longiores; calcar cylindricum, conspicue nervosum, rectum vel subcurvatum;
sepala oblonga; petala spathulata, subaequalia, subtruncata, subintegra, 2
superioribus coccineis, 3 inferioribus aurantiacis venis coccineis.

Scandent herb, glabrous throughout; stipules linear, about 3 mm. long,
coriaceous, subpersistent; petioles 3 to 4.5 em. long, cirrhose; leaves 2 to
3 cm. long, 2.5 to 4 ecm. wide, 7-lobed nearly to middle (lobes obovate, up to
1 cm, wide, rounded and minutely callose, mucronulate), peltate (propor-
tion above petiole to below petiole about 7:1), papillose beneath; peduncles
elongate, much exceeding the leaves, 12 to 15 cm. long; flowers 4 to 5 cm.
long; spur cylindric, 3.2 to 3.5 cm. long, about 3 mm. wide at throat, con-
spicuously nerved, the tip straight or very slightly curved; sepals oblong,
8 to 10 mm. long, 3 to 5 mm. wide, obtuse; petals similar and subequal, 1.3
to 1.5 cm. long, 6 to 9 mm. wide, subtruncate, subentire, the two upper
scarlet, the three lower orange with scarlet veins, all with dark brown veins
at base.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,473,481, collected near Atac,
Rio Masameric Valley, Province of Jauja, Department of Junin, Peru, alti-
tude 3,400-3,500 meters, April 25, 1913, by A. Weberbauer (no. 6641).

The leaves of this species are of the same general outline as those of T.
septemlobum and T. purpureum, though the lobes are longer and are broad-
ened at the apex. The flowers are much larger, however, the spur being fully
a centimeter longer, and the upperand the lower sets of petals are more nearly
uniform than in either of these relatives. In leaf shape as well as in the size
and form of the flowers the proposed species resembles 7’. bicolor, a repre-
sentative of the Serrato-ciliata group of species.

Tropaeolum purpureum Killip, sp. nov.

Herba scandens, glaberrima; stipulae lineari-subulatae, caducissimae;
folia peltata, septemlobata, lobis rotundatis vel truncatis, mucronulatis,
basi truncata, subtus glauca; flores 2-2.5 cm. longi; calcar cylindrico-
conicum, basi subcurvatum, brunneo-rubrum, sparse purpureo-punctatum ;

JANUARY 15, 1934 KILLIP: NEW PLANTS 49

sepala oblonga; petala spathulato-unguiculata, sepalis longiora, apice crenu-
lata, purpurea.

Scandent herb, glabrous throughout; stipules linear-subulate, 1 to 1.5
mm. long, soon deciduous; petioles 3 to 6 cm. long; leaves 2.5 to 4 cm. long,
3 to 4.5 em. wide, 7-lobed (length of lobes: nerves: :1:4), the lobes rounded
or truncate, mucronulate), peltate (proportion above petiole to below petiole
about 4:1), epapillose, glaucous beneath; flowers 2 to 2.5 cm. long; spur
cylindric-conical, about 1.2 em. long and 3.5 mm. wide at throat, slightly
curved at tip, brownish red; sepals oblong, 8 to 9 mm. long, about 5 mm.
wide, obtuse, brownish red; petals spatulate-unguiculate, crenulate at apex,
purple, 5 to 6 mm. wide, the upper about 1 cm. long, the lower about 1.5 cm.
long.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Herbarium of Natural History, no.
605,323, collected at Marcapata, Province of Quispicanchi, Department of
Cuzco, Peru, altitude 3,200 meters, February 15, 16, 1929, by A. Weber-
bauer (no. 7788). Duplicate at Berlin.

This species comes nearest 7’. crenatiflorum Hook. f. and T. septemlobum
Heilb.; differing from bothin having purple, rather than yellow or yellowish
red petals, a coloring found more usually in species of the Serrato-ciliata
group. The flowers appear to be rather similar in shape to those of 7. crenati-
florum, though they are much smaller. The leaves are 5-lobed in that species.
From 7. septemlobum, a species of central Ecuador with leaves of similar
outline, T. purpureum differs further in the crenate petals.

Mabea acutissima Killip, sp. nov.

Arbor gracilis glaberrima, inflorescentia excepta ;folia lineari-lanceolata, ad
apicem subabrupte et acutissime caudata, basi subrotundata, minute ven-
ulosa, supra nitidula, subtus glaucescentia; paniculae ramuli # glaberrimi,
umbelliformes, 3-flores, pedicellis filiformibus, elongatis, bracteis linearibus,
utrinque glandula nigra oblonga ornatis, sepalis late triangularibus, egland-
ulosis; sepalis 9 ovato-lanceolatis, eglandulosis; stamina ca. 30.

Slender tree about 6 meters high, glabrous throughout; leaves linear-
lanceolate, 5 to 8 cm. long, 1 to 1.2 em. wide, subabruptly tapering to a
long and very sharp point (this 1.5 to 2 em. long, up to 2 mm. wide), sub-
rotund at base, short-petioled (petiole filiform, about 2 mm. long), minutely
serrulate, bright green and lustrous above, glaucescent beneath; panicle
7. to 9 em. long, 2 to 3 cm. wide, deep red, the & branches glabrous, bi-
glandular at base, the glands oblong, up to 2 mm. long and 1 mm. wide,
black, 3-flowered, the flowers pedicellate, the pedicels filiform, 1 to 1.3
cm. long, minutely puberulent, ovate, the bracts about 3 mm. long, flowers
o 2 to 3 mm. wide, deep red, the sepals broadly triangular, 0.5 mm. long,
subobtuse, eglandular; sepals 9 ovate-lanceolate, 2 to 2.56 mm. long, 1 mm.
wide, acuminate, eglandular; ovary ovoid, puberulent; style 1.2 to 1.4 cm.
long, puberulent; stamens about 30.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,518,780, collected at Tu-
tunendo, 80 kilometers north of Quibdé, Intendencia del Chocé, Colombia,
altitude about 80 meters, May 19, 20, 1931, by W. A. Archer (no. 2133).

In the monograph of the genus in Das Pflanzenreich® this species keys out
3 1V. 1475; 25-42. 1912.

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

to the group of Umbelluliferae, species 16 to 19. From these four species it
differs in having very narrow leaves, which more closely resemble those of
M. angustifolia and M. longifolza.

Buettneria flexuosa Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex espinosus, ramulis juvenilibus flexuosis, crassis, subhexagonis,
6-costatis, ferrugineis, sparse vel dense hirsutulis; folia lanceolata vel
ovato-lanceolata, acuminata, basi rotundata, denticulata, quinquenervia,
utrinque ferrugineo-tomentosa; inflorescentia subpaniculata, pedicellis
tenuibus, floribus parvis; calyx campanulatus, lobis lanceolatis; cucullus
petalorum obcordatus, ligula filiformi, glabra.

Shrub 3 to 4 meters high, spineless, the branchlets obscurely 6-angled,
6-costate, ferruginous, sparsely to densely hirsutulous; petioles 1 to 3 cm.
long, ferruginous-villous; leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, 6 to 9 cm.
long, 2 to 5 em. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded at base, denticulate, 5-
nerved (nerves impressed above), densely ferruginous-tomentose; inflores-
cence axillary, subpaniculate, about 2 cm. long, the pedicels slender, 2 to
3 mm. long; calyx tube campanulate, about 1.5 mm. long, 3 mm. wide, the
lobes lanceolate, 3 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, acute; petals about 1 mm. long
exclusive of a filiform glabrous ligule 2 mm. long; stamen tube about 1 mm.
long. :

Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected at
Loja, Ecuador, November 12, 1876, by E. André (no. 4435). André’s K870, —
from the same locality, and K879, from Chuquiribamba, Ecuador, both be-
long to this species.

In the general shape of the leaves and in the dense indument this species
is suggestive of B. mollis H. B. K. and B. hirsuta R. & P., both of which are
spine-bearing. In addition, B. mollis has deeply cordate leaves and a dif-

fuse inflorescence.

Abatia macrostachya Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex ubique stellato-pubescens; folia ovata, apice acuta, basi auriculata,
crenato-serrata; racemi terminales laxiflori, pedicellis tenuibus, 1.5—2 cm.
longis, divaricatis, in fructu prope medium geniculatis; calycis segmenta
anguste lanceolata, apice subulata, interne glabra; stamina fertilia ca. 35,
sterilibus creberrimis; fructus subglobosus. 3

Shrub, the branchlets terete, finely floccose-tomentose with stellate
yellowish-white hairs; leaves ovate, 10 to 18 em. long, 6.5 to 10 cm. wide,
acute at apex, auricular at base, crenate-serrate, membranous, sparingly
stellate-hirtellous above, densely stellate-floccose on the principal nerves
beneath, the petioles 2 to 3 cm. long, quadrangular; racemes terminal,
loosely flowered, 20 to 25 em. long, 5 to 6 cm. in diameter, the rachis sub-
hexagonal, stellate-floccose, the pedicels slender, 1.5 to 2cm. long, divaricate,
at length geniculate near middle, the upper half ascending; calyx 4-parted
nearly to base, the segments narrowly lanceolate, 7 to 8 mm. long, 2.5 to 3
mm. wide, attenuate to a subulate apex, flavo-stellate-tomentose without,
glabrous within; petals none; fertile stamens about 35, the filaments filiform,
about 5 mm. long, the anthers narrowly oblong, nearly 1.5 mm. long; sterile
stamens very numerous (several hundred?), capillary, about 4 mm. long;
ovary globose-conical, densely flavo-stellate-tomentose; style subulate, 7

JANUARY 15, 1934 KILLIP: NEW PLANTS ol

to 8 mm. long, glabrous; fruit subglobose, 5 to 6 mm. in diameter, densely
flavo-stellate-tomentose.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 604,397, collected between
Yanamechi and Amaibamba, Department of Cuzco, Peru, June 19, 1915, by
QO. F. Cook and G. B. Gilbert (no. 1186). Also represented by Herrera’ S 1568,
from the Urubamba Valley, in the same department.

This is evidently a very handsome plant, with its long racemes of flowers.
The pedicels of the individual flowers are much longer and more spreading
than in the other species of this small genus.

Turnera ulmifolia serissima Killip, forma nov.

Caulis pilis brunneis adscendentibus dense vestitus; folia obovata, acuta,
minute denticulata, dentibus mucronulatis, pilis albidis ubique densissime
sericea.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,351,104, collected on the
Mesa de los Santos, Department of Santander, Eastern Cordillera of Co-
lombia, altitude 1 500 meters, December 12, 1926, by E. P. Killip and A. C.
Smith (no. 15179).

This plant is far more densely sericeous than any of the variants of the
polymorphic species 7. ulmifolia. The toothing of the leaves is much finer
than in most of the variants.

Cajophora smithii Killip, sp. nov.

Planta scandens; caulis villosulus, sparse retrorso-setulosus; folia lanceo-
lata, supra medium pinnatilobata, infra medium pinnatipartita (segmentis
jugi infimi petiolulatis), supra scabrida, subtus minute villosula; ovarium
subconicum, dense setosum; lobi calycis lineares; petala cymbiformia;
squamae saccato-convexae, oblongae, apice incrassatae, bicornes, trinerves,
prope medium dorsi appendices 3 oblanceolatas acutas albas gerentes;
staminodia ad quamque squamam 2, falciformia, papillosa, apice filiformia;
stamina ca. 80.

Herbaceous vine; stem sparsely and minutely villosulous, very sparingly
setulose with minute retrorse hairs; petioles 2 to 3.5 cm. long; leaves lanceo-
late, 5 to 7 cm. long, 3.5 to 5 em. wide, pinnately lobed in upper half, pin-
natisect to rachis in lower half (lowermost pair of segments petiolulate, the
segments ovate or lanceolate, dentate, the terminal segment denticulate),
scabrid above with short appressed hairs, finely villosulous beneath; pe-
duncles about 1 cm. long, very slender; ovary obconic, about 7 mm. long,
5 mm. wide at apex, densely setose; calyx lobes linear, about 1 cm. long, up
to 1 mm. wide; petals cymbiform, 1 cm. long, 7 mm. wide, villosulous and
sparingly and weakly setulose without, orange; scales green, saccate-convex,
oblong, 4 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, strongly thickened at apex, 2-horned,
3-nerved, bearing dorsally near middle 3 oblanceolate acute white append-
ages about 2 mm. long, 0.8 mm. wide; staminodia 2 to a scale, falciform,
about 5 mm. long, papillose, white, filiform at apex; stamens about 80, 5 to
6 mm. long, the anthers ovate.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,358,846, collected at Car-
papata, above Huacapistana, Department of Junin, Peru, altitude 3,000
meters, June 7, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 24419).

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

Apparently this species comes nearest to the Argentinan C. clavatain Urban
and Gilg’s monograph of Loasaceae, because of the general shape of the ap-
pendages of the scales. In C. clavata these are said to be filiform, narrowly
laminuliform-dilated at the apex, thus differing from those of the proposed
species. The leaves of that species, moreover, are ovate.

ZOOLOGY.—A new sea-urchin from Florida.1 Austin H. CuarK,
U. 8. National Museum. ;

While working at the Dry Tortugas laboratory of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington Mr. P. Powers of the University of Penn-
sylvania obtained some specimens of a fine new species of Astropyga
which he was so kind as to submit to me for study.

As at present understood, the genus A stropyga includes two species,
A. radiata, ranging from Zanzibar to the Hawaiian Islands, which
was beautifully figured by Seba as Echionanthus major in 1758 and
described by Leske as Cidaris radiata in 1778, and A. pulvinata, oc-
curring on the west coast of Mexico and Central America, which was
described by Lamarck under the name of Cidarites pulvinata in 1816.
The discovery of a third species of this interesting genus of large and ©
conspicuous littoral sea-urchins in Florida waters at this late date is
therefore a matter of no little interest, and this interest is increased
by the fact that, with the sole exception of Tripneustes esculentus
which sometimes slightly exceeds it, this new species is the largest
of the regular echinoids in the shallow waters of the tropical Atlantic.

The new species from Florida may be called

Astropyga magnifica, sp. nov.

Locality.—South of Dry Tortugas, Florida; 48 fathoms (88 meters); col-
lected by Mr. P. Powers.

Diagnosis.—Related to A. pulvinata but with the ambitus circular instead
of rounded pentagonal; with longer spines, which reach slightly more than ~
half the diameter of the test in length; with a smaller peristome; and with
only the outermost column of tubercles in each interambulacral area failing
to reach the peristome. The color is uniform purplish black throughout.

The test is 145 mm. in diameter and 52 mm. high, thin and flexible, the
plates interiorly with abrupt deep circular or oval pits corresponding to the
primary tubercles, these pits becoming very numerous on the actinal sur-
face. The oculogenital ring and the bare forked lines extending outward
from the genital plates are deeply sunken so that the inner two-thirds of the
ambulacral areas on the abactinal surface are much swollen. The whole
animal is covered with rather thick soft skin.

The longest primary spines are about 75 mm. long; it is impossible to

1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Received September 13, 1933.

JANUARY 15, 1934 CLARK: NEW SEA-URCHIN 53

estimate their length exactly as all of them are broken off at some distance
from the tip. The interior of the spines is filled with a rather dense calcareous
network so that they appear solid. The spines increase in diameter slightly
and very slowly from the base for a distance of about 20 mm., then remain
uniform for some distance, finally tapering gradually to the tip. In section
they are circular at the base, becoming transversely oval outward and often
considerably flattened distally. At the base they bear 20—24 sharply rounded
ridges which a little way above the base break up into rows of elongated
scales with overlapping distal ends. Distally these scales gradually become
more and more oblique, finally making an angle of about 30° with the axis
of the spine. They show a marked tendency to become arranged in irregular
verticils.

In the interambulacral areas on the actinal surface the outermost column
of tubercles ends abruptly about one-third of the distance from the ambitus
to the peristome, but the next column curves inward and reaches the peri-
stome. There are 12 columns of tubercles in each interambulacral area at
the ambitus.

The diameter of the actinal system from the apex of one genital to the
outer border of the opposite ocular is 28 mm. The diameter of the periproct,
within the ring of encircling plates, is 11 mm.

The diameter of the peristomal area is 42 mm.

Type specimen.—Cat. No. E.3125, U.S. National Museum. A second large
specimen is entered under No. E.3126, and two small ones under Nos.
E.3127 and E.3128.

Notes —Two young individuals 58 mm. in diameter and 18 mm. high and
49 mm. in diameter and 16 mm. high, resemble A. pulvinata more closely
than do the adults. Their form is pentagonal with broadly rounded angles.
The color (in formalin) is light reddish buff actinally becoming brighter
pinkish in the interradial areas abactinally. Abactinally the bare central
portion and the bare lines radiating from it are deep purple, this color being
continued outward along the sides of the ambulacral areas as a progressively
narrowing margin as far as the amitus, and further as a much lighter pinkish
line to the peristome. Along this band bordering the ambulacral areas is a
series of conspicuous brilliant blue spots, one to each plate. The spines are
very light dull greenish with several narrow bands of bright pinkish-purple
or sometimes more or less deep purple. Abactinally the ambulacral areas
within the dark border are duller and less pinkish than the interambulacral
areas. The ambulacral pores are arranged in a single irregular column.
There are six columns of primary tubercles in each interambulacral area at.
the ambitus.

Remarks.—This species is very readily distinguished from all the other
sea-urchins of the tropical Atlantic. In its general appearance and blackish
color it suggests Centrechinus (or Diadema) antillarum; but it is at once
differentiated from this species by its much shorter and more slender solid
spines and its thin and flexible test, the inner side of which is deeply pitted.
The young are very easily recognized by their conspicuous color pattern
and by their form.

This species should be compared with A. radiata, but no comparable
specimens of that form are available.

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

ZOOLOGY.—Two new parasitic worms of Didelphys aurita: Skrjabi-
nofilaria pricei n. sp. and Gongylonema marsupialis n. sp.
ZEFERINO VAz and CLEMENTE PEREIR, Instituto Biologico, Sao
Paulo, Brasil. (Communicated by BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ.)

Dr. Flavio da Fonseca of the Instituto Butantan, 8. Paulo, has
kindly sent us for study three lots of nematodes collected during
post-mortem examination of Didelphys aurita. One of the lots con-
tained some specimens of a Metastrongylidae, Heterostrongylus
heterostrongylus Travassos,” 1925, taken from the lungs. The contents
of the second lot were taken from the subcutaneous tissue and proved
to be a new filarid worm. The third contained a few specimens of a
Gongylonema which appear to us to be a new species.

Skrjabinofilaria pricei n. sp.
Fig. 1.

This new species can be included in the genus Skrjabinofilarza erected by
Travassos, 1925, for a filarid worm parasitic in the subcutaneous tissue of
the opossum. S. pricez is distinguished from S. skrjabinz by the following
characters: (1) shape of the anterior extremity, (2) absence of buccal capsule,
(3) position of the vulva, (4) trifid tip of the tail in S. pricez, (5) absence of
caudal alae, (6) number of caudal papillae.

Length: male 27-30 mm., female, 45-70 mm.

Thickness: male 0.14 mm., female, 0.2 mm.

Anterior extremity somewhat enlarged. Cuticle thin and smooth; lateral
flanges absent. Mouth simple without lips, but surrounded by a small
chitinous peribuccal ring; buccal capsule absent. Near the tip of the tail in
each sex there is laterally a pair of small cuticular appendages giving the end
of the tail a trifid appearance. Oesophagus divided in two portions: the
anterior one measuring 0.36—0.5 mm. in length, and the posterior 0.7—1.01
mm.; sometimes there is no very clear line of demarcation between the two
parts.

Male.—Posterior extremity spirally rolled with four pairs of preanal pa-
pillae and two pairs of postanal near the anus. Caudal alae absent. The anus
is situated about 0.13 mm. from the trifid posterior extremity. Spicules un-—
equal, the larger one measuring 0.16—0.18 mm. and the smaller 0.13—0.14 mm.

Female.—Opistodelphys; ovoviviparous. The vulva is 0.9-1.4 mm. behind
the anterior end. The vagina is 0.6 mm. long and directed backward. The
anus is situated 0.4 mm. from the posterior end.

Host.—Didelphys aurita Wied.

Location.—Subcutaneous tissue.

Geographic distribution.—S. Paulo, Brazil.

Types and cotypes.—Helminthological collection of the Instituto Biologico
de 8. Paulo, No. 1490. Paratypes. U.S. N. Museum helminthological collec-
tion No. 32533. ;

1 Received September 14, 1933.
2 Comp. Rend. Soc. Biol. Paris. 93: 1255. 1925.

JANUARY 15, 1934 VAZ AND PEREIR: PARASITIC WORMS 0

Con

&
S
: :
vy mo
S 9
X

—

a
@7.

Fig. 1.—Skrjabinofilaria pricet. a, anterior end of female; 6b and c,
posterior end of female; d, posterior end of male.

Gongylonema marsupialis n. sp.
Kies 2:

Two well preserved female specimens and the anterior portion of another
are the only material on which our description is based. It is possible that
this species is a synonym of a Gongylonema already known; we have created
it based on differences in the host and the geographic distribution. Only when
male specimens have been studied can we say whether this new species is

valid or not.
Female.—Length 37 mm. Thickness 0.26 mm. Mouth surrounded by

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

small dorsal and ventral lips. Cuticle thick, with transverse striations, bear-
ing in the oesophageal region of the body a number of rounded or oval cutic-
ular plaques arranged in three longitudinal rows on the dorsal and ventral
parts. Cervical alae symmetrical and relatively broad, extending anteriorly
to within 0.31 mm. of the extremity.

The pharynx is very short, measuring 0.049 mm. in length. The muscular
portion of the oesophagus measures 0.74—0.8 mm. in length by 0.04 mm. in
breadth. We cannot distinguish the posterior glandular portion of this
organ. Nervous ring 0.52 mm. from the anterior extremity.

The vulva is situated towards the posterior extremity, 4.2 mm. from the
tip of the tail. The short muscular ovejector is directed anteriorly. The uterus
is entirely full of numerous little eggs; coils of uterine complex extending near
the anus. The anus is situated 0.22—0.24 mm. from the very blunt posterior
extremity.

Host.—Didelphys aurita Wied.

' Location.—Mucous membrane of the oesophagus.

F Geographic distribution.—S. Paulo, Brazil.

" Allotypes.—Instituto Biologico de S. Paulo helminthological collection No.
1220.

ww 29

a : - / | 0,05 rn rm Yo) e

Fig. 2.—Gongylonema marsupialis. a and b, anterior end; c, posterior end of female.

ZOOLOGY .—An annotation on the nematode genus Pontonema Leidy
1855.1. N. A. Cops and G. STEINER, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Joseph Leidy described in 1855 and again in 1856 a new genus of
free-living nematodes which he called Pontonema, and to which he re-

1 The figures for this paper were prepared by Josephine F. Danforth and Florence
M. Albin, and technical assistance was given by Edna M. Buhrer, all of the Division
of Nematology, Bureau of Plant Industry. Received October 21, 1933.

JANUARY 15, 19384 COBB AND STEINER: GENUS PONTONEMA oO”

ferred two species, P. vacillatum and P. marinum. Unfortunately
Leidy’s incomplete characterization of the genus and the two species
did not allow later observers to recognize or place them properly. In
1927 a revision of the nematodes still available in Leidy’s various
collections was published by Walton. In this revision Pontonema
vacillatum was referred to the genus Oncholaimus Dujardin and the
species redescribed; P. marinum was transferred to Enoplus. About
that same time, the senior author, in connection with investigations
on nematodes from the New England coast, found it desirable to de-
termine, if possible, the exact standing of the two forms.

From the redescription by Walton (4) it may well be seen that
Pontonema vacillatum belongs to the Oncholaims but its membership
in the genus Oncholaimus proper seems doubtful. As to Enoplus
marinus as redescribed by Walton a more detailed characterization
also seemed necessary to properly differentiate the form from other
species. Such a revision was made possible through the courtesy of
Dr. J. Perey Moore of the University of Pennsylvania, to whom we
express our thanks.

THE GENUS PONTONEMA LEIDY 1855 ( =PARONCHOLAIMUS
FILIPJEV 1916)

Reexamination of the type material collected by Leidy proved that Pon-
tonema vacillatum belongs to the genus Paroncholaimus Filipjev 1916. The
latter genus is therefore a synonym of Pontonema which is now reestablished
and diagnosed as follows:

Oncholaiminae with an anterior circle of six papillae and a posterior circle
of ten short setae on the head, with three teeth in the buccal cavity, the two
subventral ones of symmetrical position, equal size, and both larger than
the dorsal one. Buccal cavity of strict dorso-ventral symmetry. Tail short,
obtuse, curved. Female apparatus amphidelphic. Gubernaculum well de-
veloped.

. Type: Pontonema vacillatum Leidy 1855.?

REDESCRIPTION OF PONTONEMA VACILLATUM LEIDY 1855

The body tapers slightly toward the head end; the tail of both sexes is
short and obtuse, (fig. le, e, f) somewhat digitate in the male. The smooth,
transparent cuticle is 6—-7u thick. There are six flap-like lips, each with a
papilla at its base (fig. la). In addition there are ten short cephalic setae,
of which one occurs in each lateral and two in each submedial sector. Short
somatic setae also occur in longitudinal series in the oesophageal region of
the body. The inconspicuous amphids are situated opposite the point of the
dorsal tooth. |

The buccal cavity is of typical shape, about 38-43 wide and 75—85y long,
and the three teeth are placed as shown in fig. ld. As in related forms the

cane velannius vulgaris (Bastian 1865) was declared type of the genus by Filipjev
in 1916.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

5: i Ape

:
of
4

Fig. 1—Pontonema vacillatum Leidy 1855 a.—Top view of head. X515. b—
c.—Tail of male. 235. d.—Lateral

Detail of male ventro-median supplement,
e.—Tail of male. X235. j.—Tail of female showing

view of head of female. 515.
spinneret. X515. g.—Detail of spicula and gubernaculum.

JANUARY 15, 1934 COBB AND STEINER: GENUS PONTONEMA 59

oesophagus is of cylindrical shape, increasing somewhat posteriad in diam-
eter. It is surrounded by the nerve-ring at about 0.5—0.6 mm. from the an-
terior end. The position of the caudal glands was not made out, but is
undoubtedly preanal, as in other members of the group; their outlet, the
spinneret, is very minute (fig. le, f).

The excretory pore opens about four and one-half times the length of the
buccal cavity behind the head end.

The female apparatus is amphidelphic, with a larger posterior branch.
This inequality in the size of the two branchesis especially noticeable by the
number of smooth, thin shelled eggs in the two uteri, the anterior containing
up to eleven, the posterior up to twenty-four. These eggs are oval, measure
45X55u and are apparently deposited unsegmented. The ovaries are re-
flexed.

In the male, the spicula are quite slender and of much simpler form than
the gubernaculum, which, as shown in fig. 1g, is of complicated structure and
almost as long as the spicula themselves. A pair of large preanal papillae is
located a short distance anteriad of the anus, and farther forward, at about
twice the spicula length in front of the anus, a ventromedian supplement is
present (fig. le and fig. 1b). A number of papillate structures is furthermore
spread over the male tail and also as a preanal ventrosubmedial series (fig.
1c).

Oe als (eee cao 2 OO aD,
ss WS TT
OA. eae Oe .98 .59

Al eee. ME O92:2
EE LD 2D TOD.
43 ? OAR = T.

Habitat—Kennebunk Port, Maine.

Diagnosis.—Pontonema with the tail slightly longer than the anal body
diameter with very short cephalic setae, with amphids opposite the point
of the dorsal tooth, with the excretory pore at about four and one-half times
the length of the buccal cavity behind the anterior end, with a longer pos-
terior branch of the amphidelphic female apparatus; with gubernacula only
slightly smaller in size than the spicula and also in the male with a pair of
slightly submedial papillae in front of the anus.

REDESCRIPTION OF ENOPLUS MARINUS (LEIDY 1855)
WALTON 1927

The cuticle is thin, measuring on the head only 5.5u, in the oesophageal
region 8u. It is traversed by fine transverse striae. The head is set off by a
fine line, a suture, as in other Enoplids, about two-thirds head-width back.
There are ten cephalic setae—one in each lateral and two in each submedial
sector. The latter are of unequal size, the longer one measuring about 22u,
its companion being about one-third shorter. A few short, small setae are
scattered in the oesophageal region and on the tail. Around the ora] opening
six lips are seen, obscurely grouped in pairs. Each of the lips bears a mammi-
form papilla. In the buccal cavity the three equal, yellowish, slightly arcuate
mandibles of 35u length have their normal position, one dorsal and one in
each ventro-submedial sector. Each mandible, 35u long, has two slightly
retrorse, distinctly separated prongs. Anteriorly each mandible is about 16y

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. I

wide but tapers posteriorly rather regularly to its blunt end which is exactly
opposite the aforementioned encircling suture. The lip region is supported
by a refractive transverse triangular framework, serving for the attachment
of the powerful buccal muscles. The small amphids occur a short distance
behind the lateral setae; their ellipsoidal, transverse openings are about.
12u long. Their opening leads into a pouch-like structure behind which
follows a fusiform cavity containing the sensilla.

As in other Enopli the three oesophageal glands empty near the base of the
mandibles into the alimentary tract. No ocelli or pigment spots were seen
on the oesophagus, but long preservation of the material may have caused
their disappearance.

Behind the buccal cavity the oesophagus is about three-fifths, at the
nerve-ring about one-half and at the base again three-fifths as wide as the
corresponding portion of the body. The lateral chords opposite the middle
of the oesophagus are about one-third as wide as the body, whereas in the
middle of the nematode they seem to be more nearly half the corresponding
body width. The number of cells making up the intestine in a cross section is
estimated to be about 20; a few scattered intestinal cells are considerably
larger than the rest. The rectum is about as long as the anal body diameter.
The base of the tail tapers conically and thence onward it may be said to
be subcylindroid in the posterior two-fifths, although the terminus is slightly

Fig. 2.—Enoplus marinus (Leidy 1855) Walton 1927 a.—Tail of male. X170-
b.—Lateral view of head of male. X490. c.—Tail of female. X170. d.—Top view
of head of male. X380. e.—Detail of tail showing spinneret. 490.

JANUARY 15, 19384 SCHMITT: NOTES ON PYCNOGONIDS 61

swollen. A spinneret forms the opening of the large tubular outlets of the
caudal glands.

The inconspicuous excretory pore is located halfway back to the nerve-
ring. Vulva slightly raised, vagina leading in at right angles; female apparatus
amphidelphic, ovaries reflexed. Three to four eggs, each about as long as the
body is wide and two-thirds as wide as long, are contained in each uterus.
The egg shell (1—2u thick) seems to be smooth.

The male has two equal, rather flatly arcuate spicula, about two-thirds
as long as the tail; they taper throughout their length. A double gubernacu-
lum is about one-fourth as long as the spicula and a telamon slightly longer.
The single tubular supplement (65X15) is located about twice the length
of the spicula in front of the anus. Its length is about one-third the cor-
responding body width and it forms an angle of about 45° with the body
axis. About one hundred posteriorly continuous oblique copulatory muscles
(about 12u wide) occur for a distance in front of the anus equal to 2-3 times
the length of the tail. A few are located behind the anus.

i ogee ae Oe je 696.00
SSS PG TLE
ic 129 1.6 iho) 1.3
OPA iol. TZ, M Tall
SO SS Cia TNT
OE A 1.4 2.2 1.4

Habitat—Kennebunk Port, Maine, and in oyster bed, Atlantic City, New
Jersey.

Diagnosis—Enoplus resembling FE. brevis Bastian, 1865, but differing from
it by larger size (8-9 mm. instead of 4.-5.5 mm. in EF. brevis), by a slightly
shorter tail in the female, by regularly tapering spicula and by a more
slender and smaller preanal supplement in the male.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Finipsev,1.N. Les nématodes libres contenus dans les collections du Musée Zoologique
de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences de Petrograd. Annuaire Mus. Zool. Acad.
Imper. Sciences. 21: 59-116.

2. Letpy, JosEPH. Contributions towards a knowledge of the marine invertebrate fauna
of the coasts of Rhode Island and New Jersey. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc. 3: 135-
i525 SoD:

. Letpy, JosEpH. A synopsis of entozoa and some of their ecto-congeners, observed by
the author. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc. 8: 42-58. 1856.

4. Watton, ARTHURC. A revision of the nematodes of the Leidy collections. Acad. Nat.

Sei. Phila. Proc. 79: 49-163. 1927.

» OO

ZOOLOGY .—WNotes on certain pycnogonids including descriptions of
two new species of Pycnogonum.! Waupo L. Scumirt, U.S.
National Museum.

Along with various collections of invertebrates received at the
National Museum, there are a number of pycnogonids which seem
worthy of record. Included are two apparently new species of Pycno-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-
ceived November 3, 1933.

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

gonum, P. rickettsi and P. hancockv. The first of these new species
comes from Pacific Grove, Monterey Bay, California, where it was
collected by the donor, Mr. E. F. Ricketts, owner and director of the
Pacific Biological Laboratories. The second was taken in the Gala-
pagos Islands in the course of the recent survey of that zoologically
unique group of islands by Captain G. Allan Hancock, of Los Angeles
and Santa Maria, California, sponsor and leader of the Hancock
Galapagos Expedition of 1933. This second new species is here pub-
lished in advance of the more complete account of the results of the
expedition in order to make this interesting find known without de-
lay.
Pycnogonum rickettsi, new species

So far as I am aware, this is the first reticulated Pycnogonum found in the
northern hemisphere. The proboscis is nearly as long as the first three trunk
segments taken together, and is about half as wide as long.

Measured across the crurigers the first trunk segment is almost twice as
wide as long in the median line; the width across the crurigers of the third
segment is equal to the length of the first two segments, the width of the
second segment is intermediate between the first and third. The first seg-
ment is about as long as the second and half the third taken together; the
third is less than half the first in length and from two-thirds to three-
fourths the length of the second.

The abdomen is a little longer than the fourth segment and the fused por-
tion of the crurigers forming part of it taken together; it extends posteriorly
as far as the first coxae of the last, fourth, pair of legs and its width is ap-
proximately equal to half its length.

The oculiferous tubercle arises a little behind the anterior margin of the
segment; it is cylindrical, more or less rounded above, with the suggestion
of a small ‘‘granular”’ tip or apex, and carries no accessory spines or tubercles
either before or behind; the eye spots are faintly marked, of just slightly
deeper and darker color than the body, and not at all as conspicuous‘as in
the drawing. On the ‘“‘neck”’ of the first segment in line behind the oculiferous
tubercle is a stout conical, somewhat apically pointed spine, which is per-
haps half again as high as the oculiferous tubercle; similar but stronger
spines top the second and third segments, that on the second is the largest
of the three. The third is intermediate in size between the first and second;
the dorsum of the small triangular portion of the fourth segment proper is
but slightly convexly raised medially, forming in some specimens more than
in others a low, blunt, rounded and rather inconspicuous eminence.

The lateral processes of the body or crurigers are subequal to the first coxae
in length, except that the first pair are a little longer than the corresponding
coxae and the last pair, which bulk less than half, or only a third the size
of the subjoined coxae. Each cruriger is armed at the middle of its upper
distal margin with a well formed small spine or conical tubercle; these
spines or tubercles decrease in size and height from last to first; the first are
very small yet distinct and noticeable, the last pair are stouter and less spine-
like; the others are intermediate in size and form. Similar stouter and larger
tubercles are located on the distal margin of the first coxae of corresponding
ambulatory legs; those on the first coxae of the last or fourth legs, are each

JANUARY 15, 1934 SCHMITT: NOTES ON PYCNOGONIDS 63

somewhat curved backward and outward; those on the first coxae of the
third legs are less curved than those on the fourth pair and like the spines or
tubercles topping the crurigers, they also decrease in size and prominence
back to front; but individually each pair is slightly larger and stouter than
the corresponding spines on the crurigers.

The second and third coxae of the ambulatory legs are without any par-
ticular armature; they are swollen or expanded distally, the first coxae of
each leg appear somewhat nodulose, in dorsal view at least. All of the joints
of the walking legs are roughened, more or less tubercular-granulate on the
upper or outer surface; above, the distal margin of the femoral and first tibial
joints are armed each with a pair of juxtaposed, stout, conical, lumpy, tu-
bercles, the tibial pair of which is smaller than the femoral; similarly placed
on the second tibial joint is an inconspicuous pair of small tubercles or
nodules; between each of these several pairs of tubercles or nodules on the
femoral and tibial joints arises a stout seta or hair.

In length the second tarsal joint of the third right leg about equals the
second tibial joint and the first tarsal taken together; the terminal claw is
about half, more or less, the length of the second tarsal joint; beneath, the
first and second tarsal joints have a fairly dense fringe or multiple row of short
spinules; similar spinules fewer in number and less definitely in rows occur
on the under side of the second tibial joint; and some few scattered spinules
are to be found here and there on the lower surface of the first tibial joint,
and even more sparingly on the femoral joint.

Type and distribution—One of two male specimens taken ‘‘from an
anemone, probably Metridiwm, brought in by a ‘dragboat’ from deep water
(60 fms.), Pacific Grove, March 31, 1925,” by Mr. Ricketts has been selected
as the holotype. It is slightly the larger of the two, and measures approxi-
mately: proboscis, length 3 mm.; greatest width, 1.2 mm; length of trunk
to base of posterior crurigers, 3 mm.; abdomen 0.9 mm. long. The largest
specimen of this species at hand is a female, which is but very little larger
than the type. It has the proboscis 3.5 mm. long by 1.5 mm. wide; and trunk
4, and abdomen about 1.1 mm. long (measurements approximate). Regard-
ing it, Mr. Ricketts says, ‘‘The large female was taken June 24, 1925, in
40-50 fms., mud bottom, off Pt. Davenport, about 14 miles N.W. of Santa
Cruz on an anemone or Polynices shell.

“Tt is interesting to note that Pycnogonum stearnsi occurs almost invari-
ably on Metridium on wharf piling, on barnacles that also have Metridium,
or on Bunodactis in the tide pools; whereas the other larger [new] species of
Pycnogonum seems to occur also in connection with Metridium, but entirely
on the giant Metridium from deep water. Ecologically, as well as taxonomi-
cally, it would appear that these two Pycnogonums are closely related,
since the mud bottom association of deep water is most closely related to
the wharf piling associations of the intertidal zone.”’

There is still a fourth specimen of this species in our collections, also col-
lected and donated by Mr. Ricketts, from Pacific Grove, 1927.

Remarks.—P. rickettsi seems to be the only reticulated Pycnogonum known
at present, in which the spines, or processes on the first three trunk segments,
are individually much stronger than, and considerably exceed the ocular
tubercle in height. P. cataphractum, in which the first of the median processes
is larger than the ocular tubercle, is at once set apart by its very spiny legs.

In P. mucronatum the median row of spines or processes topping the trunk

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

Fig. 1—Pycnogonum rickettsi. a, Dorsal view of holotype, X about 8; b, Lateral
view; c, Third right leg, X about 29; d, Oviger, X about 60.

JANUARY 15, 1934 SCHMITT: NOTES ON PYCNOGONIDS 65

segments are more or less subequal in height with the ocular tubercle, they
may slightly exceed it but they are much less stout, indeed feeble in com-
parison ; moreover, the very long slender spine-like processes topping the distal
upper margins of the crurigers are quite distinctive of this species and readily
set it apart from all others.

P. madagascarensis, which, regrettably, seems never to have been figured,
has its proboscis in the shape of a truncate cone like P. mucronatum, but
the median dorsal tubercles are low and not so elevated and columnar-
appearing as in that species, while spines or tubercles on the crurigers above
seem to be wholly wanting.

Pycnogonum hancocki, new species

A very striking reticulated species of light tan, with reticulation a deep
rich red-brown color, contrasting sharply with the bright white articulating
ends of the various joints. The ocular tubercle forms quite a conspicuous
feature in the color pattern of this species because of its darker coloration
and greater concentration of brown. This is due chiefly to the presence of
the dark brown pigmented eye-spots and to the fact that two of the dark
brown lines forming the reticulations divide the ocular tubercle roughly into
four quarters.

The proboscis is subcylindrical, truncate, and a little narrower anteriorly
than posteriorly. It is about 2} times as long as its greatest width. In length
the proboscis is very slightly longer than the first two and half the third
trunk segments taken together. The first trunk segment is equal in length to
the second, third, and fourth taken together; its greatest width over the
outermost angles of the crurigers equals the combined length of the first,
second, and about a fourth of the third trunk segments taken together. The
greatest width of the second segment is equal to the length of the first two
trunk segments taken together. The third segment is about as wide as the
length of the first trunk segment plus one-third the second. The posterior
pair of crurigers are fused for a part of their length. The abdomen is about
two-fifths the proboscis in length.

In line behind the only moderately high, rounded ocular tubercle are
three rounded tubercles, each smaller and less robust than the ocular; of
these the third on the third trunk segment is the larger; the first is situated
on the hinder margin of the first trunk segment; the second of these three
tubercles is but little larger than the first and, like it, is placed on the hinder
margin of its, the second, segment. On the dorsum of the last trunk segment
there is no eminence or raised place worthy of comment, under a higher
magnification there appears to be a very slight elevation or swelling at
about the midpoint of the center line.

The distal margins of the crurigers seem to be rather inconspicuously,
slightly nodulated, or perhaps just a bit more coarsely granulated, than the
rest of the body surface. The distal margins of the first coxae of all the
ambulatory legs seem little swollen, there being a tiny nodule or tubercle
either side of the brown line of the reticulations which divides the white
area into two; at about the distal mid portion of the proximal half of the
second coxae of the second and third legs there is a single small nodule of
comparable size, the second coxa of the first leg seems without a trace of
nodulation, while the second coxae of the fourth pair each carry a pair of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

Fig. 2—Pycnogonum hancocki. a, Dorsal view of holotype, X nearly 9; 6, Lateral
view; c, Third right leg, X about 19; d, Oviger of male, X about 70.

JANUARY 15, 1934 SCHMITT: NOTES ON PYCNOGONIDS 67

nodules or noticeable small rounded tubercles, one on the middorsal line,
and the other transversely in line and a little behind the median axis of the
coxa. The remaining joints of the ambulatory legs are rather uniformly finely
granulate, as is the entire animal.

In the third right leg the three coxal joints are more or less sub-equal in
length as are the femoral and the first tibial joints approximately; the second
tibial joint and the second. tarsal exclusive of the terminal claw are also of
about the same length; measured on the ventral margin, the first tarsal
joint is very little longer than the terminal claw; the second tibial joint is
about two-thirds the length of the first, and either two coxal joints are equal
to three-fourths the femoral joint in length. Much as in the preceding species,
the inferior borders of the tarsal joints are finely spinulate, and to a lesser
extent the tibial joints near their distal ends only.

Type and distribution.—The largest of four specimens before me, a female,
has been taken as the type. It was taken Feb. 9, 1933, in company with a
somewhat smaller male carrying eggs on its ovigers at Sta. 65, Hancock
Galapagos Expedition, at low tide from a small rocky reef, offshore, north
of Tagus Hill, Albemarle Island, Galapagos, latitude 0°14’ S. It measures
approximately: proboscis 2.4 mm. long by 0.9 mm. wide; trunk, exclusive
of posterior crurigers, 2.6 mm. long; and abdomen 1.0 mm.

The two other specimens at hand, both females, were taken respectively
at Chatham Island, January 31, 1933, in the course of dredging in 2-3 fathoms
east of Wreck Bay; and during shore collecting along the rocky shore east
of Cormorant Point, Charles Island, Galapagos, February 6, 1933.

Remarks.—P. hancock: is one of the reticulated species of Pycnogonum be-
longing to the group having a few tubercles on the ambulatory legs. From
the species so grouped, P. indicum, madagascarensis and mucronatum, it
differs, in the case of the first, among other characters, in lacking the armed
ridge running back from the ocular tubercle, and in having a subcylindrical
proboscis instead of a decided conical one; the proboscis of P. madagascar-
ensis, like that of P. indicum, forms an obtuse cone; in P. mucronatum the
height of the median dorsal tubercle of the trunk serves to differentiate it from
P. hancockt, aside from the fact that the former has long slender spinous or
tubercular processes on the crurigers which are wholly lacking in the latter.
The very low dorsal tubercles of the trunk segments of this species seem
rather unique among the reticulated Pycnogonums, particularly those with
legs comparatively or almost wholly free of noticeable tubercles.

NYMPHON GROSSIPES (Fabr.)

On occasion of a reconnaissance in the Bering Sea in the furtherance
of the National Geographic Society’s interest in the possibilities of
aerial Arctic exploration, Capt. R. A. Bartlett made a number of
dredgings for marine invertebrates. In one haul made about fifteen
miles north of Big Diomede Island, Bering Strait, June 14, 1924, two
specimens of Nymphon grossipes were obtained. The only previous
records of this species off the West American coast are those of John

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

Murdoch at Point Franklin in 134 fathoms and at the head of Norton
Sound, Alaska, in 5 fathoms, respectively August 31 and September
12, 1883.

PHOXICHILIDIUM FEMORATUM (Rathke)

A very ragged, yet identifiable, specimen of this species was re-
ceived from the U. 8. Biological Survey as a part of the stomach con-
tents of Histrionicus histrionicus pacificus Brooks, the Pacific har-
lequin duck, collected by A. M. Bailey Sept. 1, 1920, at Stephens Pas-
sage, Alaska. At the time of its receipt, the specimen represented a
noteworthy eastward and southward extension of the range for the
species, which heretofore on the west coast of America had only been
known to range from Unalaska to Orea (Cole). However, I have also
had occasion to determine another specimen of this species from much
farther south, from Ucluelet, Vancouver Island. This specimen is
listed a second time below as one of the pycnogonids seen from British
Columbia.

AMMOTHEA LATIFRONS Cole

A portion of fragments of sixteen specimens of this pyenogonid were
determined for the Biological Survey from the stomach contents of
the Pacific harlequin duck, Histrionicus histrionicus pacificus Brooks,
taken by P. A. Tavener at Kiska Island, Aleutians, April 16, 1924.

AMMOTHEA PRIBILOFENSIS Cole

This species has been determined from stomachs of Histrionicus
histrionicus pacificus Brooks, the Pacific harlequin duck, as well as
Somataria v-nigra Gray, the Pacific eider, on several occasions in
quantities of one to three specimens. The birds in which these identi-
filable specimens were found were secured by G. Dallas Hanna on St.
Paul Island, Pribilofs, January 13 and 29, 1918, and Mar. 21, 1915.

In several other specimens of each of these two ducks, fragments
of pycnogonids which could not be definitely named were found, as
well as in a pigeon guillemot, Cepphus columba Pallas, also obtained by
Dr. Hanna on St. Paul Island, Dec. 9, 1914. Hydroids of at least two
species were found in the stomachs of several of the birds from which
pycnogonids were sorted at the Survey. The remarkable variety of
marine animals eaten by the ducks at least would indicate that the
pycnogonids were very probably ingested along with the hydroids,
some algae, crustacea, mollusks, echinoderms, and the like, which
form the bulk of their varied fare.

JANUARY 15, 1984 SCHMITT: NOTES ON PYCNOGONIDS 69

PYCNOGONIDS FROM MONTEREY BAY, CALIFORNIA

As it may be of some interest, a list of the Monterey Bay pycno-
gonids that were identified a few years ago for Mr. E. F. Ricketts of
the Pacific Biological Laboratories is here appended. Eight species
are to be recorded from the region:

ANOPLODACTYLUS ERECTUS Cole, 1 specimen, collected in 1927,
‘from compound ascidians far out; tide pools.’’

HALOSOMA VIRIDINTESTINALIS Cole, 16 specimens, chiefly taken in
1928, “from wharf piling, Obelza colonies.”’ 7

AMMOTHEA LATIFRONS Cole, 2 specimens ‘‘from 80 fathoms,”’ re-
ceived in 1928. These specimens seem to be of a somewhat more
slender build as regards the appendages, eye-tubercle, and abdomen
than most of those available for comparison from farther north. How-
ever, one from Sanborn Harbor, Nagai, Alaska, determined by Leon
J. Cole, appears so well to link the California specimens to the species
that I have so identified them in spite of what appears to be a very
considerable extension of range southward.

AMMOTHELLA TUBERCULATA Cole, | young specimen, received 1927.

LECYTHORHYNCHUS MARGINATUS Cole, 3 specimens, data as for A.
erectus above.

TANSTYLUM INTERMEDIUM Cole, 2 specimens, received in 1927.

PYCNOGONUM STEARNSI Ives, 9 specimens received in 1927. One of
specimens was found on an anemone.

PYCNOGONUM RICKETTSI Schmitt, specimens and occurrence as
given with the description of the species above.

PYCNOGONIDS FROM SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

AMMOTHELLA BI-UNGUICULATA Dohrn, 3 specimens from San Pedro
(Pt. White), collected by E. P. Chace, May 5, 1919.

AMMOTHELLA SPINOSISSIMA Hall, 1 specimen, as above, May 18,
1919.

PYCNOGONUM STEARNSI Ives, 13 specimens, collected by E. P.
Chace; three males, one female, from tide pools, Point Fermin, Mar.
28, 1918; and three males, six females, from mussels, north of Santa
Monica, Nov. 17, 1918.

PYCNOGONIDS FROM BRITISH COLUMBIA

From Ucluelet, Vancouver Islands, W. Spreadborough, May—July,
1909, sent in pyenogonids of four species for identification, while a
fifth but tentatively determined was taken from Virago Sound, Queen

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

Charlotte Island, from 8-15 fathoms by M. Dawson, 1878. The
specimens seen are as follows:

PHOXICHILIDIUM FEMORATUM (Rathke), 1 specimen.

AMMOTHEA GRACILIPES Cole, 4 specimens.

AMMOTHELLA, TUBERCULATA Cole, 5 specimens.

? AMMOTHEA ALASKENSIS Cole, 1 specimen; close to if not identical
with this species; from hydroids.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service
NoTEs

National Academy of Sciences.—A number of contributions were made by
Washington scientists at the autumn meeting of the National Academy of
Sciences at Cambridge, November 20 to 22. Dr. F. EK. WricHt announced
new data obtained in polariscopic examination of moonlight, and their
bearing on the problem of the nature of the lunar rocks. Dr. C. G. ABBoT
spoke on his recent discovery of a 23-year weather cycle, and its correlation
with periods of sun-spot maxima. Dr. ARTHUR E. Morgan, director of the
Tennessee Valley Authority, delivered the principal evening lecture, on
Muscle Shoals and the Tennessee Valley Problem. Dr. JoHN C. MERRIAM pre-
sented a review of the present status of the problem of the antiquity of man
in North America. Gen. GEorGE O. SQuiER discussed a proposal for a com-
bined sound and light distributor.

National Institute of Health—Researches at the National Institute of
Health and at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York
City indicate that encephalitis patients develop immune bodies in their
blood. In both investigations a virus-susceptible strain of mice was used. The
animals were inoculated with material from the brains of encephalitis vic-
tims, producing typical symptoms. But susceptible mice given preliminary
injections of blood serum from encephalitis patients were protected from the
disease.

The Colorists organized.—The artistic, commercial, scientific, and other
aspects of color will be the concern of an informal group organized under the
name of The Colorists. While color enters into many activities of daily life
and is of interest to groups of artists, physicists, and industrialists in many
aspects, Washington has not heretofore had a society whose primary object
was color in all of its many aspects. At the organization meeting held at the
Cosmos Club, CHarLEs BiTTincEeR, Washington artist who has made a
scientific study of color, presided. Miss Dorotuy NicksErson, color expert
of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of the Department of Agri-
culture, was also one of the leading organizers. Among those who participated
in the formation of the organization were Dr. E. C. CRITTENDEN, assistant
director of the U. 8. Bureau of Standards, and Mr. A. EH. O. MunsE x1 of the
Munsell Research Laboratory, Baltimore, Md., who has been a leader in
the commercial standardization of color. The U.S. Bureau of Standards was
also represented by Dr. K. 8. Gipson, Dr. DEANE B. Jupp, R. T. MEAss,
J.T. BREwstTErR, WILLIAM D. Appr, R.S. Hunter, Dr. Percy A. WALKER,

JANUARY 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS (fi

Miss Rusy K. Worner, Miss GENEVIEVE BEcKeER, and Dr. H. D. HusBarp.
Among the representatives of the U. 8S. Department of Agriculture were:
B. A. Brice, M. R. Coz, C. C. Firretp, Paut E. Hown, Grorce PFEIFFEN-
BERGER, CHARLES E. Sanpbo. From the University of Maryland came Dr.
Braumont and LEE SHRADER. The Paint and Varnish Institute was repre-
sented by L. P. Hart, J. R. Stewart, G. G. Swarp and A. W. Oan. Dr.
T. S. Bracxetr and Dr. E. D. McAtistTrer attended, representing the
Division of Radiation of the Smithsonian Institution. Dr. 8. W. Boaes,
geographer of the State Department and Miss Epna S. Banks of the Library
of Congress Map Division represented geographical interest. Lieut. BERN
ANDERSON mentioned the color problems of the U. 8. Navy. Other Washing-
ton fields of color interest were represented by CHARLES VAL CLEAR, director
of the Art League, I. H. Gopuove, color counselor, and Fetrx MAHonrEy,
artist.

National Zoological Park.—A “ghost wolf” (Chrysocyon jubatus) from
Brazil has been acquired by the National Zoological Park. The animal,
which is about five months old, is believed to be the only one in captivity.
The National Zoological Park has also started a collection of birds whose
names are familiar in English literature; it includes specimens of the English
robin, European shrike, goldfinch, chaffinch, hawfinch, bullfinch, lapwing
and waxwing. Specimens of the bulbul and shamas thrush, Asiatic birds
also often mentioned by English authors, are also included.

National Bureau of Standards.—On the evening of Saturday, November 18,
the members of the staff of the Bureau of Standards gave a reception in
honor of Dr. Lyman J. Briaas, the new Director of the Bureau. In addition
to staff members there were in attendance the Secretary of Commerce
and the heads of the scientific bureaus of the Government. An exhibit of
recent developments in science was arranged in connection with the recep-
tion.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Dr. GuNTHER ROEDER, director of the Pelizaeus Museum, Hildesheim
Germany, lectured before the Archaeological Society of Washington on
discoveries made by his expedition at Hermopolis, in Egypt.

Dr. Witut1aM WALLACE CAMPBELL, president of the National Academy
of Sciences, president emeritus of the University of California and director
emeritus of the Lick Observatory, was the principal speaker at the annual
Carnegie Day exercises of the Carnegie Institute of Technology on November
28.

Dean A. A. Porrrr of Purdue University has been added to the committee
on railway research of the Science Advisory Board.

Dr. W. F. G. Swann, director of the Bartol Research Foundation of the
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, gave a cello recital before the Arts Club
of Washington on the evening of Thursday, December 14.

Dr. Karu F. Kevuerman has been appointed head of a new division of
plant disease eradication and control in the Bureau of Entomology, U. S.
Department of Agriculture.

Freperick D. RicHry, now in charge of corn investigations in the

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

Bureau of Plant Industry, has been promoted to be associate chief, effective
January 1.

Dr. JAMES RosBeERTSON, director of the Nautical Almanac office of the
Naval Observatory, was given the degree of Doctor of Science by George-
town University on the evening of Friday, December 24. Among those who
witnessed the ceremony was the Rev. EH. C. Puiuurps, 8.J., formerly astron-
omer at Georgetown and now Father Provincial of the Baltimore Province
of the Society of Jesus.

Dr. W. B. BE tt, of the Bureau of Biological Survey, attended the 47th
annual convention of the Association of Land Grant Colleges and Uni-
versities, at Chicago, Ill.

RicHARD KILBOURNE, forester for the Extension Service of the University
of Maryland during the last three years, has resigned to become assistant
chief of planting in the forestry department of the Tennessee Valley Au-
thority at Knoxville.

W. C. HENDERSON, associate chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey,
spoke over the radio on the subject, A critical time for ducks and geese, on
November 12. His talk was broadeast by Station WMAL in Washington.
He pointed to overshooting as one of the chief causes of the decrease in water-
fowl and the only one that can be remedied immediately.

Park Naturalist PauL R. FRANKE of Mesa Verde National Park and Park
Naturalist D. 8. Lippy of Crater Lake National Park are in the Washing-
ton Office at the present time. Mr. FRANK will remain in Washington for
several months assisting with the motion picture program being lined up for
the Civilian Conservation Corps camps by the Branch of Research and
Education. Mr. Lipsey will also remain in the Washington Office for several
months to assist with the Emergency Conservation Work program being
carried out in the reservations under the jurisdiction of this office.

Mr. Earu A. TRAGER, geologist in the branch of research and education,
office of National Parks, Buildings and Reservations, U. 8. Department of
the Interior, will give a talk on the geology in the national parks at the forth-
coming meeting of the Geological Society of America to be held in Chicago at
the end of December.

F, P. Parris and E. M. SxHook of the department of historical research,
Carnegie Institution of Washington, received training in December at the
department of terrestrial magnetism in making astronomical observations
for the determination of latitude and longitude and in observing the magnetic
declination preparatory to taking up work in connection with the proposed
archaeological excavations in Central America.

Mr. Jason R. SwWALLEN, assistant agrostologist, Bureau of Plant Industry,
sailed Nov. 22 for Para, Brazil. He will spend six months collecting and
studying grasses in the states of Para, Maranhao, Piauhy, Ceara, and Rio
Grande do Norte. The grasses of this region are very little known, the few
botanists who have visited northeastern Brazil having as a rule neglected
the grasses.

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL PAPERS
Page

Chemistry—The ammoniation of waste sulfite liquor and its possible utilization
as a fertilizer material. Max Puruuips, M. J. Goss, B. E. Brown, and ve R.

FRB ee Oy a hate aed a os De CON GOR Rata a a en 1
Hydrology.—The history and development of ground-water hydrology. abun
EpWaRp UMBINZER } os 000408 Sa oo a Oe 6
Botany.— Hawaiian algae collected by Dr. Paul C. Galtsoff. Marsnaun A.
BOWE cis ee fe Pa eS ee A eS an BSR 2 en 32
Botany.—New plants mainly from western South America—lV. ELusworts P. |
FORTE G2) ee ee a ke eo oa Sea ne a et ted ee cr Gude Why abe
Zoology.— A new v sea-urchin from Florida. Austin H. OUARK...........-++.-. 52

foology —Two new parasitic worms of Didelphys aurita: Skrjabino; apie pricet
n. sp. and Gongylonema marsuptalis n. sp. ZEFERINO Vaz and CLEMENTE

PRT R 5 Re og ORs Ta de aa ate int Oo Geto, ae tag ts ee a BE 54
Zoology.—An annotation on the nematode genus Pontonema. N.A.Copgand G.

SPMINER woo ol Ry oa ists Ce ee
Zoology.—Notes on certain pycnogonids including descriptions of two new species _

of Pycnogonum.’ «WawLno L: SCHMITT. 3.0. ge a ee 61
Scrunrivic Notes anp NewS. 0.40. Oyo i ee Oe 5 On 70

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Bt Psd

LW 2

Vou, 24 | Frepruary 15, 1934 No. 2
JOURNAL | “vod:
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WASHINGTON ACADEMY
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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 24 FEBRUARY 15, 1934 No. 2

BOTANY.—Two new varieties of Salix scouleriana Barratt. “ CARLE-
TON R. Batu, University of California.

The well marked but variable species complex known as Salix
scouleriana is distributed from New Mexico and southern California
to the Yukon Valley of Canada and Alaska. In altitude it ranges from
sea level along the Pacific Coast, from California to Alaska, to eleva-
tions of 8000 or 9000 feet in the southern part of the Rocky Moun-
tains and in the San Bernardino Mountains of California.

It has been described under several specific names, including S.
scouleriana Barratt (1839), S. flavescens Nuttall (1841), S. stagnalis
Nuttall (1841), S. brachystachys Bentham (1857) and S. capreoides
Andersson (1858). Probably some of the plants so named represent
distinguishable varieties, but none of them is so recognized as yet.
This is due in part to the difficulties of current herbarium material.
It is a species of extremely precocious flowering and the promptly
deciduous aments fall before the leaves develop. Some plants flower
in December on the Pacific Coast. Except in the rare cases where col-
lections are made from the same plant at intervals of some weeks,
therefore, it is almost impossible to know what observed leaf forms
are associated with certain ament and flower characters. The species
certainly would be better understood if it could be split into varieties.
Happily it now is possible to segregate and describe two varieties
hitherto unrecognized.

The writer desires to express thanks for the many courtesies re-
ceived from the staff of the Department of Botany, University of Cali-
fornia.

SALIX SCOULERIANA var. coetanea Ball, var. nov.
Sectio Capreae. A specie typica amentis coetaneis, pistilliferis iis speciei

aliquando laxioribus, et ambobus in pedunculis brevibus folioso-bracteatis
fultis differt.

* Received October 17, 1933,
73

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

Shrub usually 2-4 or rarely 5 m. high. Branchlets rather slender, fragile
(or readily deciduous in drying), divaricate, the 2-year brown to dark brown
and glabrate to glabrous, the 1-year and seasonal shoots yellowish to brown
and usually finely and often sparsely puberulent. Bud scales small, colored
and clothed as the branchlets. Stipules wanting, or rarely 2-5 mm. long on
vigorous shoots, broadly lanceolate, dentate, puberulent. Blades oblance-
olate and acutish to obovate and obtuse or rounded at apex, cuneate at base,
3 to 5 cm. long by 1.5—2.5 cm. wide, or the larger up to 6 by 3 cm., entire and
slightly revolute on the margins or the distal on seasonal shoots irregularly
crenulate-denticulate, dark green above, glaucescent to glaucous beneath,
puberulent on both surfaces (probably becoming glabrate in age).

Aments coetaneous, borne on short, leafy-bracted peduncles, the Sena
nate peduncle about 5 mm. long, with small bracts, the pistillate peduncle
5-15 mm. long and bearing 3—5 smal] leaf-like bracts, 0.5-2 em. long. Stam-
inate aments 1-2 cm. long, Pistillate aments 1.5—4 cm. or sometimes 5 cm.
long; pedicels of the capsules 0.5-1 or 1.5 mm. long; styles short, stigmas
elongated, 1 mm. long, usually entire. Flower scales in both sexes elliptical-
obovate, acutish to rounded, black, longvillous.

This is a shrub with the general characters of S. scouleriana, but differing
from type concept of that species and the next variety in having the aments
coetaneous, the pistillate rather lax, and both sexes borne on short, leafy-
bracted peduncles. For the material on which the description is based, bota-
nists are indebted chiefly to two very discriminating collectors, Joseph P.
Tracy of Eureka, California, and J. William Thompson of Seattle, Washing-
ton. The writer is glad to acknowledge his personal obligation to both.

As will be noted from the specimens cited, variety coetanea flowers from
May to June, and fruit may be found during June and early July, in marked
contrast to the early spring flowering of the species. Even at sea level,
flowering did not occur until mid-March. There must be admitted the
possibility that this condition results from physiological disturbance of the
plant. The increasing number of collections, over a wide area, however,
make this unlikely. The type specimen (pistillate) is Thompson No. 9297
in herbarium C. R. Ball (2 sheets).

So far as available material indicates, this variety is confined to the central
part of the range of the species. It occurs sparingly from northwestern Cali-.
fornia to Nevada and Utah, and north to south-central Washington, western
Montana, and the mountains in the southern parts of Alberta and British
Columbia. It is found, therefore, in the Wasatch, Rocky, Sierra-Cascade,
and Coast Range mountain systems. Except for the one collection near the
ocean, where precipitation and fog maintain low temperatures, the collec-
tions are all from elevations of 4000 to 6000 feet. It seems probable that the
variety will be found to have an even wider range.

Specimens examined are cited below. The containing herbariums are:
CRB, Carleton R. Ball; NMC, National Museum of Canada; PC, Pomona
College; UMont. University of Montana; and UC, University of California.

CaLirornia: Humboldt Co. Ferndale, alt. 100 ft., shoots from cut and

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 BALL: NEW SALIX VARIETIES 19

burned stump, Joseph P. Tracy 10921, (UC). Trinity Summit, shrub
10 ft. tall, on dryish slopes back from the meadows, Corral Prairie, alt.
5000 ft., Joseph P. Tracy 10507, (CRB, UC); shrub with erect branches,
15 ft. tall, at edge of meadow, same locality, Tracy 10518 (UC).
Trinity Summit, common shrub in moist places, 6-10 ft. tall, rocky, ex-
posed places, head of Devil’s Hole, alt. 6000 ft., Tracy 10694, (CRB,
UC). Trinity Summit, rocky exposed places, head of Brett Hole, alt.
6000 ft., Tracy 10714, (UC). Modoc Co. In lodgepole pine woods, north
slope of Bidwell Mtn., Warner Mts., Elmer I. Applegate 7619, (CRB).

Nevapa: Head of Fall Creek, Ormsby Co., elev. 2460 m., C. F. Baker 1153,
(PC; distrib. unnamed; 9 and <a’, the latter aments 1 cm. long, the
peduncles 0.5 cm. and bracted). Lake Tahoe, Nevada, M. E. Jones,
(PC, distrib. unnamed; fruit past ripe).

Montana: Missoula, on trail to Mt. Stuart, alt. 6000 ft., J. EH. Kirkwood
1076, (UMont, UC).

WASHINGTON: Kittitas Co. Upper alpine slopes of Redtop, alt. 4500 ft.,
J. Wm. Thompson 9297, (CRB, UC, luxuriant growth, leaves green
beneath from artificial drying); same locality, alt. 4000 ft., Thompson
9303, (CRB, UC; ‘‘more robust than 9297, and occupying a definitely
lower zone’’). Chelan Co. Blewett Pass, Wenatchee Mts., abundant
in thin timber on open hillsides, elev. about 4200 ft., C. R. Quick, 1057,
Goro’), (CRB, UC).

UranH: La Sal Mts., M. E. Jones, (PC). City Creek Canon (Ogden?), M.
E. Jones (PC).

BritisH CoLumBiA: International Boundary Commission. Near Interna-
tional Boundary between Midway and Osoyoos, first summit west of
Skagit River, J. M. Macoun 73683 (NMC). Mons, Pacific Great East-
ern Ry., J. M. Macoun 97789, 97790 (NMC).

ALBERTA. Banff and vicinity, VN. B. Sanson, 19, 145, 161 (CRB).

SALIX SCOULERIANA var. thompsoni Ball, var. nov.

Salix brachystachys Bentham, S. scouleriana tenuijulis Andersson (in part)
Monog. Sal. Kon. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handlingar 6: 83. 1867.

S. brachystachys, 8 scouleriana, 1. tenuzjulis Andersson (in part). DC. Prodr.
16(2): 225. 1858.

Sectio Capreae. A forma typica differt ramulis gracilioribus, strictioribus, et
glabrescentioribus, foliis minoribus plerumque anguste ellipticis vel anguste
oblanceolatis, 3—7 cm. longis, 1—2 cm. latis, plerumque plus minusve crenato-
denticulatis, et amentis minoribus gracilioribus, 1—2.5 cm. longis.

Differs from the species in the slender, elongated, more glabrate branch-
lets, the small and slender aments, and the small, mostly narrowly oblanceo-
late, and usually more or less crenate-denticulate leaves.

Shrub 2-4 or sometimes 6 m. high, branchlets usually slender, elongated,
straightish, ascending, and tough; l-year and 2-year branchlets usually
black or dark brown, glabrous and often shining; seasonal shoots pubescent
or puberulent, becoming glabrate; bud scales 4-7 mm. long, colored and
clothed as the shoots bearing them; stipules usually wanting, or 1-2 mm.
long and semi-cordate on vigorous shoots; petioles 5-10 mm. long, pubescent
to glabrous; leaf-blades relatively small, those on seasonal shoots and the
upper leaves on 1-year and 2-year branchlets narrowly elliptical to oblanceo-
late, commonly 1 by 3, 1.2-1.5 by 4, 1.5-1.8 by 5-6, and 2.5 by 7.5 em. in

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

size; the lowermost on these branchlets broadly oblanceolate, commonly
1.5 by 3-3.5 and 2 by 4 cm. in size; all usually cuneate at base; narrower
blades acute or short-acuminate, lower and broader often obtuse; "the upper
narrower irregularly and often prominently crenate- denticulate, the lower
entire or subentire; all green and glabrous above or the younger puberulent,

Fig. 1.—Salix scouleriana var. thompsoni Ball. Portion of pistillate
and staminate cotype specimens.

all pale green to subglaucous beneath, the older glabrous to glabrate,
younger pubescent or occasionally tomentose beneath with gray hairs which
often become somewhat rusty in color.

Staminate aments 1-2 cm. long, almost sessile; stamens two, filaments
free, glabrous; scales usually somewhat narrower than those of the pistillate
flower. Pistillate aments 2-3 cm., or occasionally 4 em. long at maturity,
usually slender and incurved, on tomentose peduncles 5-7 mm. long and

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 BALL: NEW SALIX VARIETIES rege

bearing 2-3 pilose bracts or small, bract-like leaves; capsule lance-rostrate,
6-7 mm. long, gray-pubescent, borne on a pubescent pedicel 1-1.5 mm.
long; style very short, 0.2-0.5 mm. long; stigmas entire or divided, 0.5-1
mm. long; scales broadly oblanceolate or obovate, 1.5-2.5 mm. long, acute
to obtuse or sometimes slightly erose at apex, black, densely pilose on out-
side and thinly pilose inside with long, shining hairs.

The existence of the well marked variation described above has been
known for several years but publication has been delayed until the collection
of flowers and foliage from the same plants should make possible a complete
and accurate description. This convincing material has now been made avail-
able by Mr. J. William Thompson, of Seattle, whose critical collections are
adding rapidly to the known flora of this large and diverse State. It is a real
pleasure to name this variety in his honor.

The portion of the scouler,ana complex to which variety thompson is
most closely related is the variety or form tenuzjulis described by Andersson,
as cited at the opening of this discussion. From Andersson’s form it differs
in still smaller aments and foliage and especially in elliptical or elliptical-
oblanceolate and denticulate leaves, as well as in much less pubescence on
branchlets and leaves.

The center of distribution for this variety appears to be the Puget Sound
area of Washington and the Georgian Bay area of adjacent British Colum-
bia. It has been found by Pammel on the Oregon Coast below the mouth
of the Columbia River. Away from the coast it has been taken at appreciable
elevations in the Cascade Mountains, at Easton, Washington, by Pammel
and on Mt. Benson, Vancouver Island, by John Macoun. Doubtless the
known range will be extended still further when these facts come to the
attention of collectors.

Tke initials of the herbariums containing the specimens cited below are:
CRB, Carleton R. Ball; NMC, National Museum of Canada; UC, Univer-
sity of California; and USN, United States National Herbarium. The follow-
ing specimens have been examined:

OREGON: Clatsop Co. Gearhart Park, L. H. Pammel 13, (CRB).

WASHINGTON: King Co. Seattle: Pzper and Smith 556 (in part), (CRB);
C. V. Piper, March, 1890 (CRB); about 3 miles north of city limits,
C. V. Piper 6682, 6686, 6693, (CRB); moist slopes along Cheasty
Boulevard, J. William Thompson 5896 (pistillate type collection), 5898,
5900 (staminate type collection), 5901, (CRB). Pierce Co. Taco-
ma, shrub, 10-20 ft. high, common in gravelly soil, J. B. Flett 1884,
March 6, April 14, and June 14, 1901 (CRB); abundant in vacant
lausssany places. Jc 5. Mleil 2272, 22724, (CRB); L. H. Pammel 34,
(CRB). Kittitas Co. Haston, Pammel and Dudgeon 19, (CRB). Snoho-
mish Co. Marysville, J. M. Grant 208, 209, 211, (CRB); 203, (CRB,
UC, sub nomen S. caudata). San Juan Co. Lopez Island, shrubs 6-9
feet high, dry roadsides near the “‘Holy Roller” colony, Hunter’s Bay,
€. kh. Ball 2084, (CRB).

BritisH Cotumsia: Vancouver Island. Cowichan Lake, W. Spreadborough
83853, (NMC). Departure Bay, W. Spreadborough 2, (NMC, 83847 and

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

83857); 3, (NMC, 83846 and 83854); 4, (NMC, 83845 and 83848); 5,
(NMC, 83844 and 83849); 6, (NMC, 83843). Mt. Benson, upper
slopes, alt. 3200 ft., John Macoun 76800, (CRB, NMC). Nanaimo and
vicinity, John Macoun 76802, (CRB, NMC); in thickets, John Macoun
80958, (NMC); John Macoun 76804, (NMC); W. Spreadborough 15,
(NMC 88850). Strathcona Park, Drumm Lake, J. M. Macoun 83881,
(NMC). Victoria and vicinity, John Macoun 76770, (CRB, NMC);
in thickets, Burnside Road, John Macoun 76766, (NMC); Beaver
Lake, John Macoun 76801, distributed as S. geyerrana (CRB, NMC,
branchlets very short, crowded); A. J. Pinio 68682, (NMC); M. O.
Malte 122135, (NMC, UC). Georgian Bay Islands. Mayne Island,

J. M. Macoun 90155, (NMC). Salt Spring Island, wet places, John
Macoun 24470, (NMC, UC). New Westminster District. Ocean
Park, 3 miles north of 49th parallel, gravelly hillsides on logged and
burned land, J. K. Henry 6, (CRB, 3 sheets; NMC, 2 sheets); Henry 7,
(CRB, 3 sheets; NMC, 2 sheets); Henry 12, (CRB, NMC). All distrib-
uted unidentified, NMC Nos. 117206-117209, and 117211. Powell
River, erect bushes, 8-10 ft. high, J. G. Jack 2838, (CRB).

ZOOLOGY.—Two new species of pearly fresh-water mussels... WtL-
LIAM B. MarsHA.u, U. S. National Museum. (Communicated
by Paut BARTSCH.)

The recent pearly fresh-water mussel described herein comes from
southern Paraguay and belongs in the genus Anodontites. The fossil
species comes from the State of Monagas, Venezuela, and is the type
of anew genus, Castalioides.

Castalioides, new genus

Shell with strong sculpture of radial ribs, several of the innermost pairs
arranged to form very long V’s. Ribs crossing the anterior and posterior
slopes form a divaricate pattern with the radial ribs.

Type: Castalioides laddi described below.

Castalioides laddi, new species

Shell subelliptical, slightly inflated. Beaks set well forward (at about the
first one-quarter of the length). Dorsal margin arcuate; anterior margin
rounded and rounding into the ventral margin which is slightly arcuate and
joins the posterior margin in a sharp curve. Posterior end obliquely subtrun-
cate. Anterior ridge not differentiated from the general surface except by the
divaricating sculpture along it. Posterior ridge high, subangular. Posterior
dorsal area rather broad. Sculpture of strong, nearly straight, radial ribs,
several of the innermost pairs joining to form very elongate V’s with the
apex pointing toward the ventral margin. Distant from the beaks the ribs
become somewhat irregular. Several low ribs originating on the posterior

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-
ceived October 6, 1933.

Figures 1-6.

Figs. 1-3. Castalioides laddi. Fig. 1—Posterior sculpture of type X2. Fig. 2—
Anterior sculpture of type X2. Fig. 3.—Right valve. Natural size.

Figs. 4-6. Anodontites schadei, typespecimen. Natural size.

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

ridge and divaricating there from the general radial sculpture, run across
the posterior area. Similar, but smaller, more sharply defined ribs divaricate
from the general sculpture near the anterior ridge and run across the an-
terior area. (Teeth not showing in the type, but judging from imperfect
teeth showing in a right valve paratype, they resemble those of Tetraplodon
linkt Marshall.)

The type, U.S. National Museum (Cat. No. 373033) measures: Length,
40mm.; height, 22 mm.; diameter (about 24 mm.). It and a paratype (Cat.
No. 373034) were found fossil near Aragua de Maturin, capital city of the
District of Piar, State of Monagas, Venezuela. This locality is on the Aragua
River, a tributary of the Guarapiche River, which in turn is tributary to the
San Juan whose waters drain into the Gulf of Paria, formed by the mainland
of Venezuela and the Island of Trinidad. Two other paratypes were returned
to the Venezuela Gulf Oil Co. from which the material was received. The
geological age quoted for the specimens is Quaternary.

In general appearance the species resembles T'etraplodon linki Marshall?
(Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 69: 6, plate 1, figs. 6, 7; plate 3, fig. 2. 1926), but is
distinguished generically and specifically by the divaricated sculpture along
the anterior and posterior ridges. The species is named for Dr. Harry S.
Ladd, through whose kind efforts the material was obtained.

ANODONTITES

Four specimens of this genus, all in bad condition, retain enough of their
features to show that they are related to the group including such species as
A. tortila Lea, A. lacteola Lea, A. palmeri Marshall and A. pittcert Marshall,
all of which are recent species from the northern coast of South America.

Anodontites schadei, new species

Shell of medium size, rather heavy, oblong; dorsal margin lightly arched;
ventral margin nearly straight, sloping upward at the anterior end and fad-
ing into the sharply rounded anterior margin; posterior margin oblique,
slightly arched and forming with the ventral margin a widely rounded point
which points downward, giving the shell a rather oblique appearance. Beaks
eroded, located well forward, making the shell appear to hunch forward.
Anterior ridge rounded, the descent to the anterior margin abrupt. Posterior
ridge low, rounded, the descent to the posterior and dorsal margins rather
steep. A well-marked riblet traverses the posterior area from the beaks to ©
the rear extremity of the shell. Sculpture consisting of fine concentric growth
striae, with a number of major rest periods prominently marked by deep
concentric grooves. Centre of shell nearly smooth, posterior area and around
the margins somewhat lamellate. Color chestnut, dark greenish near the
beaks, the colors darker on the front half of the shell. Interior whitish, highly
iridescent in the adductor sears and in the area between the pallial line and
the margins. Anterior scar deep, posterior scar well-impressed. Pallial line
15 mm. from ventral margin. Prismatic border dark greenish olive, rather
wide throughout but widest along the middle of the ventral margin. Sinulus
narrow and long, its tip curving backward.

The type (U.S.N.M. No. 434732) measures: Length, 90 mm.; height, 53

2 Von Martens in letter to Pilsbry (Princeton University Expeditions to Patagonia,
1896-99, 3: 610. 1911) says the generic name Tetraplodon is a synonym of Castalia.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 LINTON: NEW TREMATODES 81

mm.; diameter, 34 mm. It and a paratype (No. 424837) come from the Tubi-
cuary River at Aroja in southern Paraguay, and were collected by Mr. F.
Schade for whom the species is named and were presented by Mr. Hugh
Fulton of London. The Tubicuary River is a tributary of the Paraguay
about 65 miles above its confluence with the Parana and hence is in the La
Plata system.

The nearest relative of Anodontites schadet is A. mansfieldi Marshall of
the Rio Yaguaron and its branches, in Cerro Largo, Uruguay. A. mansfieldi
is lighter in weight, proportionally more elongate, has the sinulus broad and
curving forward, the interior typically rosy, the posterior end well-elevated
above the ventral margin, and the prismatic border much wider, approach-
ing in character the very wide prismatic border of Anodontites patagonica
Lam. In addition to these differences, the two species come from different
drainage systems.

ZOOLOGY .—A new genus of Trematodes belonging to the subfamily
Allocreadiinae1. Epwin Linton, University of Pennsylvania.
(Communicated by PAuL BARTSCH.)

In the manuscript of a paper: Some Trematodes of fishes, mainly
from the Woods Hole region, awaiting publication, a new generic name
is proposed to accommodate distomes, recorded in earlier papers by
the author under the name Distomum vitellosum. To avoid possible
confusion in nomenclature it has been suggested that a brief descrip-
tion of the new genus be published.

Cymbephallus Linton, gen. nov.

Body smooth, moderately elongate; ventral sucker surrounded by a raised
border of the body wall, which may be more or less scalloped, papillate, or
slightly fimbriate; cirrus very short, appearing as a muscular sucker at the
orifice of the ejaculatory duct in front of the ventral sucker, to the left of
the median line. Testes smooth or lobed, median, one following the other,
behind the smooth or lobed ovary. Vitellaria diffuse.

Type species, Cymbephallus vitellosus (Linton).

CYMBEPHALLUS VITELLOSUS (Linton).

Distomum vitellosum Linton. Bull. U. 8. Fish Com. 1899: 290, 416, fig. 38,
89, and 333-340. Bull. U. 8. Fish Com. 1904: 335. Proc. Nat. Mus.
33: 105.

These distomes assume a great variety of contraction shapes. Living
examples are usually relatively short with breadth one-third or more of the
length. When placed in fresh water or weak formalin they tend to become
turgid and may elongate until the length is six or more times the breadth.
Under pressure the living worm may become several times as long as broad.
Neck short, conical, often reflected dorsad, especially in turgid specimens;

1 Received October 18, 1933.

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

posterior end of body frequently tapering to a blunt point. Ventral sucker
larger than oral, ratio about 8:5, surrounded by a raised border, which may
appear to be sinuous in outline, or to bear 4 or 5 lobes on the posterior
border and about 4 on the anterior border, often inconspicuous in mounted
specimens. In turgid specimens the ventral sucker is prominent, often more
or less pedicellate. Maximum length in balsam about 3.5 mm. Pharynx usu-
ally a little longer than broad, ratio of length of pharynx to diameter of oral
sucker about 4:5. Prepharynx very short or none; esophagus as long or
longer than pharynx; intestinal rami reach nearly to the posterior end of the
body, usually hidden by the dense vitellaria. Genital pore in front of the
ventral sucker to the left of the median line; the ejaculatory duct terminates
in what has the appearance of a strong, muscular sucker-like structure, at
the anterior border of which is the opening of the metraterm. The seminal
vesicle extends one-third or more of the distance between the ventral sucker
and the ovary. The two testes, the one following the other, lie about midway
between the ventral sucker and the posterior end. They are usually circular
or oval in outline, occasionally subtriangular and rarely slightly lobed.
Ovary near anterior edge of first testis usually more or less elliptical in out-
line. Vitellaria diffuse, continuing from near posterior edge of ventral sucker
to the posterior end of the body, often obscuring the other organs. Uterus
between ovary and ventral sucker. Ova, average of 24 specimens from 16
different specific hosts, in balsam, 0.053 by 0.029 mm.; maximum 0.063 by
0.033, minimum 0.045 by 0.027.

Recorded from 34 species of Woods Hole fishes, from 15 species of Beau-—
fort fishes and from 5 species of Bermuda fishes. Found in the intestines.

Cymbephallus fimbriatus Linton, sp. nov.

Distomum vitellosum Linton, Bull. U. 8. Fish Com. 1899: 462. Bull. U.S.
Fish Com. 1904: 388, 390, 399, fig. 176-178.

Body elongate, not varying much in diameter; neck short, more or less
conical; ventral sucker larger than oral, prominent, sometimes pedicellate,
surrounded by a border of short papillae; pharynx elliptical-ovate, longer
than broad; esophagus longer than pharynx; intestinal rami extend to pos-
terior end; genital pore in front of ventral sucker, on left of median line,
the opening of the ejaculatory duct a strong, muscular sucker; opening of
the metraterm with sphincter on blunt papilla at anterior border of genital
sucker; seminal vesicle elongate, curved, extending from one-third to more ~
than one-half the distance between the ventral sucker and the ovary; testes
two, the one following the other with but a short interval between, in some
cases lobed, in others lobes not distinct; ovary at or near the anterior edge
of the first testis, usually not lobed, although a tendency to lobing was ob-
served in a few cases. Vitellaria diffuse, filling the body back of the testes,
and extending to a point about half way between the ovary and the ventral
sucker. Ova about 0.06 by 0.03 mm. Maximum length, in balsam about 5
mm.

From Menticirrhus sazatilis, Woods Hole; from Bairdiella chrysura,
Menticirrhus americanus and Sciurus ocellatus, Beaufort. Found in the intes-
tines.

This species differs from C. vitellosus in its larger size, and in having
longer and more numerous papillae bordering the ventral sucker, in the lobed

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 83

character of the testes and larger ova, also in that the seminal vesicle extends
farther back of the ventral sucker, and the vitellaria do not reach to a
point as near the ventral sucker. Furthermore while C. vitellosus tends to
taper towards the posterior end, C. fimbriatus, as a rule, maintains its
breadth back of the ventral sucker and is bluntly rounded at the posterior
end. There are, however, many contraction shapes in both species which
make it difficult to fit descriptions to them.

ORNITHOLOGY .—Bird bones from Eskimo ruins on St. Lawrence
Island, Bering Sea... HERBERT FRIEDMANN, U. S. National
Museum.

During several seasons of excavating ancient and more modern
Eskimo habitations on St. Lawrence Island, Mr. H. B. Collins, Jr.,
Assistant Curator of Ethnology, United States National Museum,
amassed a large collection of avian bones. Inasmuch as all his
material was carefully collected with full stratigraphical data, it
is possible to determine, in a relative sense, the different ages of
the various specimens. Furthermore, since the time limits range from
village sites abandoned half a century ago to some probably 2500 or
more years old, the ages of the diggings vary appreciably. Of course,
while 2500 years means a great deal in human cultural biology, it is of
little moment as far as birds are concerned. The collection totals
several thousand bones, all of which have been carefully studied and
identified and are reported on in this paper. The bones are referable
to 45 species of which 10 are new to the known avifauna of St. Law-
rence Island. These 10 are as follows:

PUFFINUS TENUIROSTRIS Slender-billed Shearwater
BRANTA CANADENSIS MINIMA Cackling Goose

BRANTA NIGRICANS Black Brant
MELANITTA DEGLANDI White-winged Scoter
MELANITTA PERSPICILLATA Surf Scoter

MERGUS MERGANSER subsp. Merganser
HETEROSCELUS INCANUS Wandering Tattler
LARUS CANUS BRACHYRHYNCHUS' Short-billed Gull

RISSA BREVIROSTRIS Red-legged Kittiwake

BRACHYRHAMPHUS BREVIROSTRIS Kittlitz’s Murrelet
In addition to these, several species previously recorded on the basis

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-
ceived October 9, 1933.

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

of observational records alone, are represented in the present collec-
tion.

These bones, together with the collection of birds reported on in a
previous paper (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 80, art. 12: 1-31. 1932.) give
a fairly comprehensive picture of the avifauna of the island. Perhaps
the most striking single feature is the complete absence of any species
of ptarmigan, although both the Alaskan and the Siberian mainlands
and most of the islands between them are inhabited by one or more
forms of these birds.

In attempting to analyze the data from the viewpoint of ornithol-
ogy, rather than ethnology or anthropology, we must remember that
the number of bones of a given species is not a reliable index to the
abundance of that species with respect to another, less abundantly
represented, as the factor of human selection plays a large role. Thus,
there are no raven bones in the present collection, but this does not
mean that there were no ravens on the island at the time when the
old villages were flourishing; it only means that Eskimos did not look
upon ravens as food and did not kill them and leave their bones in
and around their huts. On the other hand, it is obviously unlikely that
the Eskimos would have been able to get numbers of birds of species
that were rare at the time, so an abundance of remains does indicate a
high numerical status for the species. It is the relative abundance of
species that is chiefly affected by the element of selection. (By selec-
tion is meant not only the volitional choice of the Eskimo, but also
his ability to procure the bird in question. Thus, a strong flying spe-
cies that feeds over the open ocean, and relatively seldom roosts on
the cliffs on the island would be very difficult to get and so, while de-
sired by the Eskimo, might be ‘“‘selected out’’ by his inability to get
it.) Also some selection was involved in the actual collecting of the
specimens.

The species most abundantly represented in the collection is Pal-
las’s murre. It is obviously the most important single bird species
to the Eskimo, and it is obvious from the enormous number of bones,
that the species was as abundant in the past as it is in the present.

The other birds commonly used for food include the crested and
the paroquet auklets, the Pacific and king eiders, and, strangely
enough, the pelagic cormorant. One of the surprises was the paucity
of goose bones, especially of the emperor goose. Pigeon guillemot, old-
squaw, long-tailed jaeger, red-faced cormorant, and short-tailed al-
batross come next in descending order of frequency, and after them
come a large number of species, present in varying quantities.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 85

The village sites involved in this study have been described by
Collins (Geogr. Review 22: 109-114. 1932.) from whose account
the following remarks are extracted.

On the gravel spit near the present village of Gambell, at the north-
west end of the island, are three abandoned villages, known to the
Eskimos as Miyowaghameet, Jevoghiyogameet, and Seklowaghya-
get, while a recently abandoned village immediately adjoins the
present settlement of Gambell. The gravel spit extends westward from
Gambell Mountain, on the slopes of which is the oldest village site,
the one referred to in this paper as Hillside Village.

At the opposite, southeast, end of the island is the old village site
of Kialegak, judged to be of approximately the same age as Ievoghi-
yogameet. The estimate of the age of the sites is, of course, very vague
but in the case of the four villages near Gambell, it was possible for
Collins to work out a relative, chronological sequence, even if the ab-
solute age was indeterminable. To quote him on this point:

Beginning at the base of the mountain and extending westward to the
village at the end of the spit is a series of parallel ridges of gravel—old beach
lines—which from the top of the mountain can be seen very distinctly. The
position of the several old villages in relation to these former beach lines and
to the present beach affords some evidence of their respective antiquity, for
villages of the maritime Eskimo are always situated close by the sea or other
body of water. The ruins closest to the present village at the end of the spit
should be the latest; these are the recently abandoned houses... and the
adjoining old site Seklowaghyaget. ... Inthesame way the oldest of the aban-
doned villages should be Miyowaghameet.. . three-fourths of a mile away
at the base of the mountain and half a mile distant from the sea and enclosed
in the first two (the oldest) beach lines. Ievoghiyogameet ..., some 200
yards north... (of Miyowaghameet), is separated from it by four beach
lines and thus should date from a somewhat later period. Between .. . (it)

. . and the north shore are six more old beach lines, most of which were no
doubt piled up after the abandonment of the village.

The archeological evidence resulting from four months of intensive ex-
cavation bore out this assumed sequence... . A fifth site. . . (Hillside Vil-
lage) ... , unknown to the Eskimos and completely covered over with sod,
moss, and rocks, was found on the lower slope of the mountain... .

To sum up for our immediate purposes, the oldest site is Hillside
Village, estimated as possibly 2500 or more years old; next is Miyo-
waghameet, assumed to be about 2000 years old; then Ievoghiyoga-
meet, around 1000 years old; Kialegak corresponds in age with Miyo-
waghameet and Ievoghiyogameet, chiefly with the latter; Seklowa-
ghyaget is estimated to have been occupied up to about 200 years
ago, and the recent Gambell site is supposed (on hearsay evidence
from the natives, as well as from the nature of the excavated materi-

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

als) to have been abandoned about 40 years ago. The lower strata
of its middens may be 100 years older.

In the course of his work Collins made a great many cuttings or
diggings in each of these sites and recorded the levels of each. Of
these individual diggings about 75 revealed bird bones. The time ele-
ment in each site between superficial and basal strata is, however, too
short to be of significance as far as the ornithological results are con-
cerned, however much it may mean to the anthropologist, and in this
paper I have combined many of these individual data.

I am greatly indebted to Mr. Collins for much information regard-
ing the location and relative age of the sites, and for his patience
in answering many questions more or less relevant to the immediate
topic at hand.

The specimens of bones are all in the United States National Mu-
seum.

Family GAVIIDAE Loons
GAVIA ADAMSI (Gray) Yellow-billed Loon

The yellow-billed loon is represented only in the diggings of sites
about 1000-2000 years old; thus the northern and western sections
of Miyowaghameet yielded a fragmentary sternum, radius, and meta-
carpal; Ievoghiyogameet a fragmentary sternum; while the Kialegak
site at the opposite end of the island produced a tarsometatarsus and
a metacarpal of this bird.

Judging by the size of the bones of this species, which would make
for both their preservation and discovery, the few bones found and
the few diggings containing them seem to indicate that either the bird
was always scarce or hard to get or not sought after by the Eskimos.

GAVIA ARCTICA PACIFICA (Lawrence) Pacific Loon

The Pacific loon appears first in the Ievoghiyogameet site where it
is represented by a broken sternum. The Kialegak ruins yielded a
single tibiotarsus attributable to this species. In the recent site at
Gambell a part of a skull and a broken sternum were found. All in all,
the story is similar to that of the yellow-billed loon, a scarcity of re-
mains of the species due to the same several possible factors.

GAVIA STELLATA (Pontoppidan) Red-throated Loon

The diggings at Ievoghiyogameet and at Miyowaghameet, dis-
closed several bones of the red-throated loon. Ievoghiyogameet re-
vealed this species in three separate cuttings representing the whole

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 87

time duration of the village deposit, from the surface layer to the
basal portion, the bones (single ones in all cases) being a sternum, a
tibiotarsus, and a metacarpal. At Miyowaghameet, in the relatively
younger northwest deposits an ulna was found. In the much more
recent deposits at Seklowaghyaget a tibiotarsus was unearthed.

Family DIOMEDEIDAE Albatrosses
DIOMEDEA ALBATRUS Pallas Short-tailed Albatross —

In my paper on the birds of St. Lawrence Island (Proc. U.S. Nat.
Mus., 80, art. 12:8. 1932.) I wrote that although Nelson and Turner
saw this albatross at sea near and about St. Lawrence Island, the
only definite records for the island are two mandibles found there by
Nelson and a maxilla dug up by Collins at Miyowaghameet. A study
of the present collection of bones has revealed this species in no less
than ten separate cuttings ranging from the most recent sites to the
most ancient one—the extent of time between the two extremes being
around 2500 years or more. Beginning with the oldest, we may men-
tion them in chronological sequence: Hillside Village, fragments of
humeri, ulnae, and metacarpals; Miyowaghameet, 4 separate diggings,
a total of one pair of maxillae, 1 pair of clavicles, 1 fragmentary ulna,
1 fragment of a mandible, 1 tarsometatarsus; Ievoghiyogameet, 2
cuttings, 1 fragmentary pair of clavicles, 1 tarsometatarsus, 3 meta-
carpals; Seklowaghyaget, 1 tibiotarsus; Gambell (recent) 2 cuttings,
1 humerus, | pair maxillae, 1 ulna, 1 radius.

Apparently the short-tailed albatross was used for food whenever
it could be obtained. The large size of its bones makes it probable
that relatively fewer were overlooked by the collector than in the
case of smaller bird bones.

Family PROCELLARIIDAE Shearwaters, Fulmars
PUFFINUS TENUIROSTRIS (Temminck) Slender-billed Shearwater

This species has not been recorded previously from St. Lawrence
Island. It is represented by a coracoid in perfect condition, found at
Miyowaghameet.

F'ULMARUS GLACIALIS RODGERSI Cassin Rodger’s Fulmar

Bones of this fulmar are noticeably scarce in the present collection,
only two being definitely attributable to the species. At Ievoghiyo-
gameet a coracoid was unearthed, and at Kialegak a tibiotarsus was

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

found. The fulmars, being very pelagic in their habits are probably
seldom killed by the Eskimos, a fact that may help to explain the
absence of further osseous remains.

Family PHALACROCORACIDAE = Cormorants
PHALACROCORAX PELAGICUS PELAGICUS Pallas Pelagic Cormorant

The pelagic cormorant is represented in 17 individual diggings,
from the most ancient to the most recent. It was most abundantly
found in the deposits at Kialegak, where it was unearthed in 6 sepa-
rate cuttings, and at Ievoghiyogameet, where it was revealed in five
cuttings; 2 diggings at Miyowaghameet turned up bones of this cor-
morant as did also 2 cuttings at Seklowaghyaget; the ancient hillside
village near Gambell and the recent village at Gambell each revealed
one bone of this bird. Although in most of the 17 diggings only single
bones or only a very few were found, in the upper layers at Ievoghiyo-
gameet no less than 16 tarsometatarsi were unearthed. This extra-
ordinary abundance makes one wonder what unusual conditions may
have made the birds so accessible or sought after at that time.

It is noteworthy that although many limb bones were found, only 4
synsacra and 1 sternum were unearthed, and no parts of the skull or
mandibles.

PHALACROCORAX URILE (Gmelin) Red-faced Cormorant

Hitherto this cormorant has been known from St. Lawrence Island
only on the basis of Nelson’s statement that it is a, “...moreor
less common summer resident” there. No specimens have been taken
in the flesh as far as I know. However, bones attributable to this
species are included in the results of 8 diggings, but only in cuttings
of ancient sites. It may well be that the species was formerly more
abundant on St. Lawrence Island that it is today, but no reasons can
be advanced to account for its change in status. The most ancient
site, the Hillside Village revealed a fragment of a humerus; Ievoghi-
yogameet yielded the greatest number of bones distributed among 4
cuttings, one of which contained as many as 12 tarsometatarsi and 3
tibiotarsi; while 3 cuttings at Kialegak produced 2 humeri and 1 tarso-
metatarsus. The fact that the species is represented at both ends of
the island (Gambell and Kialegak) indicates that it was widespread in
its local range. If it were present 1n only one place, it might have been
assumed that its hypothecated decrease might have been due to the
decimation of the sole colony on the island.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 89

Family ANATIDAE Ducks, Geese, Swans
CYGNUS COLUMBIANUS (Ord) Whistling Swan

When one considers the gastronomic desirability of this, the largest
edible bird on the island, and its fairly even distribution there, it is
surprising that its remains have been found only in the deposits at
Kialegak and not in any of the old sites near Gambell. At Kialegak
it is represented by a pair of clavicles and several fragmentary bones
found in 3 separate diggings.

BRANTA CANADENSIS MINIMA Ridgway Cackling Goose

The cackling goose is an addition to the known avifauna of St.
Lawrence Island. It is represented in 2 cuttings of the upper layer of
the Kialegak site; in one by a coracoid, in the other by a pair of clavi-
cles.

BRANTA NIGRICANS (Lawrence) Black Brant

This goose is also new to the known bird fauna of the island. It is
represented by a metacarpal found in a basal digging at Kialegak.

PHILACTE CANAGICA (Sevastianoff) Emperor Goose

The remains of the emperor goose are remarkably few in number
considering the abundance of the bird on St. Lawrence Island, and
the extent to which it is hunted and used for food by the Eskimos.
Furthermore, its bones are present in neither the two oldest sites
(Hillside Village and Miyowaghameet) nor the most recent one (Gam-
bell), but chiefly in the diggings at Kialegak, and, in small numbers,
in 2 cuttings at Seklowaghyaget. At Kialegak bones of the emperor
goose were found in 5 cuttings; at Seklowaghyaget in 2 diggings.
Strangely enough, almost no long bones were unearthed, but chiefly
metacarpals and fragments of clavicles and coracoids.

The fact that the majority of the bones come from Kialegak at the
southeast end of the island is in keeping with the present distribution
of the bird. It is found chiefly in the southern part of the island, es-
pecially in the vicinity of the long lake and lagoons. On the north side
the species is not nearly so common.

ANSER ALBIFRONS ALBIFRONS (Scopoli) White-fronted Goose

The white-fronted goose is represented in the remains from Kiale-
gak (2 diggings) and Ievoghiyogameet (1 cutting), in all cases by
metacarpals only. It is peculiar, to say the least, that all four species

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

of geese are represented by bones other than the long limb bones usu-
ally preserved, such as the humerus, femur and tibiotarsus.

Apparently the white-fronted goose has always been an uncommon
bird in St. Lawrence Island, as it is today.

DAFILA ACUTA TZITZIHOA (Vieillot) American Pintail

The pintail is represented by a single bone, a tarsometatarsus found
at Kialegak.

NYROCA MARILA (Linnaeus) Greater Scaup Duck

One sternum, collected at Ievoghiyogameet, is referable to this
duck. Previously the greater scaup duck was known from St. Law-
rence Island only on the basis of Nelson’s statement of its occurrence
there. No specimens were collected by him.

CLANGULA HYEMALIS (Linnaeus) Old-squaw

The old squaw is one of the commonest ducks on the island, and
its bones have been found in 12 diggings, the greatest number being
at Kialegak, where it is represented in 7 cuttings. The oldest bones
come from Miyowaghameet (3 diggings); one fragmentary skull was
found at levoghiyogameet, and a piece of a sternum was unearthed
in the recent village site at Gambell.

HISTRIONICUS HISTRIONICUS PACIFICUS Brooks
Western Harlequin Duck

The western harlequin duck is represented by bones chiefly in the
Kialegak and Ievoghiyogameet sites. In the former it was found in 4
diggings; in the latter village, in 2 cuttings. A single coracoid comes
from the excavations at Seklowaghyaget as well. The Kialegak and
Ievoghiyogameet specimens are all humeri except for a pair of tarso-
metatarsi. |

POLYSTICTA STELLERI (Pallas) Steller’s Eider

Steller’s eider appears among the remains of the oldest site, the
Hillside Village, in the form of a fragmentary femur. Otherwise it is
represented only from Kialegak, where, however, it figures in four
diggings, 3 of which yielded a humerus apiece and 1 a synsacrum.

SOMATERIA V-NIGRA Gray Pacific Eider

The Pacific eider is abundantly represented in the present collec-
tion, its bones being recorded from 32 separate cuttings, ranging

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES Ot

throughout all the sites and ages except the very oldest (Hillside
Village), and Seklowaghyaget. At Miyowaghameet, it was found in
3 cuttings; at Ievoghiyogameet, in 7 cuttings; at Kialegak, in 20 dig-
gings; at the recent Gambell site, in 2 diggings.

SOMATERIA SPECTABILIS (Linnaeus) King Eider

Today the Pacific eider is much more abundant on St. Lawrence
Island than the king eider, but, if we may judge by the skeletal re-
mains, the latter species was somewhat the commoner of the two in
the pre-historic past, or else was often selected as an object of the
chase by the Eskimos. Remains of the king eider are included in the
material excavated at 37 different diggings. The oldest village site
revealed a coracoid of this duck, and its bones have been found at
each of the other village deposits except, strangely enough, the recent
village site at Gambell. At Miyowaghameet it was found in 1 cutting;
at levoghiyogameet in 3 cuttings; at Kialegak, where it was found
in greatest numbers, in 31 diggings; at Seklowaghyaget in 1 digging.
The absence of this species from the recent Gambell site is of interest
in connection with its relative decrease in abundance at present.

ARCTONETTA FISCHERI (Brandt) Spectacled Eider

The spectacled eider is represented only in the collections from
Kialegak, where it was found in 4 cuttings. All in all, 3 humeri and 4
coracoids were unearthed.

MELANITTA DEGLANDI (Bonaparte) White-winged Scoter

_ The discovery that this duck was represented in no less than 9 dig-
gings at Kialegak is very surprising in view of the fact that the species
had never been recorded from the island before. To find a bird new to
the local avifauna in a single cutting is a thing to be expected, but to
find such abundant evidence of one is really unusual. It is significant
that the species was found only from the southeast end of St. Law-
rence Island, the point nearest its mainland range. The bones include
2 tarsometatarsi, 2 tibiotarsi, 1 coracoid, and many fragmentary
pieces.

MELANITTA PERSPICILLATA (Linnaeus) Surf Scoter

A humerus, found at Kialegak, is of this species. The surf scoter is
new to the avifauna of St. Lawrence Island. As far as I know, this is
the most northwestern locality whence the species has been recorded
as yet,

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

OIDEMIA AMERICANA Swainson American Scoter

The American scoter seems (from somewhat inconclusive evidence)
to have been commoner on St. Lawrence Island in the past than
it is today. Bones of this duck are present in the collections made
in 5 different diggings at Kialegak. Of naturalists who have made
observations on the bird life of the island, only Nelson has recorded
this species, and he reported it as occurring only sparingly there.
None of the collectors since the time of Nelson’s visit have found it.

The fact that no bones of this duck were found at any of the sites
at the northwest end of island suggests that even in the past (perhaps
1000 years ago) its range on the island was very limited. This may
still be so, and may be the reason recent visitors have failed to find
it.

MERGUS MERGANSER subsp. indet. Merganser

A number of bones, from 5 different diggings at Kialegak, are defi-
nitely referable to this species, but I cannot find any diagnostic skele-
tal characters by which to determine their subspecific identity. Nei-
ther race of the merganser has ever been found near St. Lawrence
Island and either one might be the form involved as the island is just
about half way between the known limits of their respective ranges.
If the bird should turn out to be the nominate Eurasian form, it would
be an addition to the North American avifauna, if it should be M. m.
americanus, it would be a considerable extension of range. The species
is new to St. Lawrence Island.

The bones include 1 humerus, 1 radius, 2 ulnae, 7 metacarpals, and
1 tibiotarsus.

MERGUS SERRATOR Linnaeus’ Red-breasted Merganser

The red-breasted merganser is represented by a tibiotarsus and a —
metacarpal, both from Kialegak (2 separate diggings).

Family GRUIDAE Cranes
GRUS CANADENSIS CANADENSIS (Linnaeus) Little Brown Crane

Three village sites (Miyowaghameet, Ievoghiyogameet, and Kiale-
gak) yielded bones of this crane. Most of the bones are fragmentary
but a whole tarsometatarsus was found at Ievoghiyogameet. In a bird
of this size the absence of records from a deposit is fairly good evi-
dence that the species was either not present or was not fed upon by
the Eskimos.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 93

Family SCOLOPACIDAE Woodcock, Snipe, and Sandpipers
HETEROSCELUS INCANUS (Gmelin) Wandering Tattler

A humerus found in one of the basal diggings at Kialegak appears
to be of this species. St. Lawrence Island is the northwesternmost
locality from which this bird has been recorded so far. The wandering
tattler is an addition to the avifauna of the island.

Family STERCORARIIDAE Jaegers and Skuas
STERCORARIUS POMARINUS (Temminck) Pomarine Jaeger

The pomarine jaeger is represented only in the material excavated
at Kialegak, where its bones were found in 4 separate diggings.

STERCORARIUS PARASITICUS (Linnaeus) Parasitic Jaeger

The three oldest village sites (Hillside Village, Miyowaghameet,
and Kialegak) yielded osseous remnants of the parasitic jaeger, but
the more recent sites did not. Only a few bones were found in all—3
humeri, 3 tibiotarsi, 1 ulna, and several fragments.

STERCORARIUS LONGICAUDUS Vieillot Long-tailed Jaeger

The abundance of bones of this jaeger came as a distinct surprise
as the species was not previously recorded as particularly common
on St. Lawrence Island. Bones attributable to it were found in twen-
ty-six diggings, from the oldest site (Hillside Village) to the newest
(the recent Gambell site). In the Hillside Village site a fragmentary
humerus and a tarsometatarsus were found; at Miyowaghameet (4
cuttings) 7 humeri, 4 tarsometatarsi, and 3 tibiotarsi were found; at
Kialegak bones were found in 15 separate cuttings, the bones includ-
ing 7 humeri, | coracoid, 6 tarsometatarsi, 2 femurs, and fragments; at
Ievoghiyogameet (5 diggings) 8 humeri, and 4 tarsometatarsi were
collected; at Gambell (recent) 2 tarsometatarsi were unearthed.

This bird is said to walk about on the ground when feeding on in-
sects, and it is probably at such times that the Eskimos are able to
kill it in numbers.

Family LARIDAE Gulls, Terns
LARUS HYPERBOREUS Gunnerusm Glaucous Gull

The ancient Hillside Village yielded a fragmentary humerus and a
piece of a mandible of this gull; a coracoid was found at Miyowagha-
meet; 2 cuttings at Ievoghiyogameet produced 1 skull, 1 extra max-

94- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

illa, 1 tarsometatarsus, and 1 coracoid; the Kialegak collection con-
tained a pair of mandibles.

LARUS GLAUCESCENS Naumann Glaucous-winged Gull

This gull is more abundantly represented in the collection than the
preceding species. It was found in 7 diggings at Miyowaghameet,
Ievoghiyogameet, Kialegak, and the recent site at Gambell. The re-
mains include 4 metacarpals, 1 fragmentary skull, 1 pair of mandibles,
1 sternum, | ulna, and fragments.

LARUS BRACHYRHYNCHUS Richardson Short-billed Gull

This gull was not mentioned in my list of the birds of St. Lawrence
Island (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 80, art. 12. 1982), but I have since
found that Bent (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 113: 145. 1921.) states that
it breeds on the island. Furthermore, the map in Cooke’s paper on the
distribution of North American gulls (U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 292:
47. 1915.) shows a record for St. Lawrence Island. Bones of this gull
were found in 38 diggings, all at levoghiyogameet. The bones include
3 ulnae and a sternum.

RISSA TRIDACTYLA POLLICARIS Ridgway Pacific Kittiwake

This gull is represented in 11 diggings in the old village sites (Hill-
side Village, Miyowaghameet, Kialegak, and Ievoghiyogameet) and
seems to have been as numerous 1000 or more years ago as it 1s today.
A broken pair of mandibles found at Hillside Village and an ulna from
Miyowaghameet are the oldest specimens in the order named. Kiale-
gak site contained many bones, as 4 cuttings there revealed this spe-
cies; but the greatest abundance of kittiwake bones was found at
Ievoghiyogameet, where 5 cuttings yielded 1 sternum, | pair of man-
dibles, 1 skull, 6 ulnae, 1 humerus, and 1 metacarpal.

RISSA BREVIROSTRIS (Bruch) MRed-legged Kittiwake

This gull is an addition to the avifauna of St. Lawrence Island.
It is represented by a pair of mandibles found in a superficial digging
at levoghiyogameet. This constitutes a considerable northward ex-
tension of the known range of the species.

Family ALCIDAE Auks, Murres, Auklets
URIA LOMVIA ARRA (Pallas) Pallas’s Murre

This, the most abundant bird on St. Lawrence Island today, is also
by an enormous percentage, the species most abundantly represented

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 95

by the bones from the old village sites. It is represented in 69 diggings,
from all the sites and of all the ages. It is also represented by almost
as many individual bones as all the other species combined. Two
humeri, collected at Kialegak, match exactly humeri of Uria aalge
californica, but I am not convinced that it is advisable to attempt to
separate the two murres on the basis of their humeri as they are so
very similar and overlap in their dimensions.

It is obvious that Pallas’s murre is the most important avian item
of food in the lives of the St. Lawrence Eskimos.

CEPPHUS COLUMBA Pallas Pigeon Guillemot

This guillemot is represented by bones from 16 diggings from all
the village sites except Seklowaghyaget. Apparently its numerical
status on St. Lawrence Island has not changed much during the last
2500 or so years.

BRACHYRHAMPHUS BREVIROSTRIS (Vigors) Kittlitz’s Murrelet

A humerus from a basal digging at Ievoghiyogameet is the only
record of this murrelet for St. Lawrence Island. Although it is known
to breed on both the Alaskan and Siberian coasts of Bering Sea and
adjacent parts of the Arctic Ocean, it had not been reported from St.
Lawrence Island before.

CYCLORRHYNCHUS PSITTACULA (Pallas) Paroquet Auklet

The paroquet auklet is abundantly represented in the diggings of
all the village sites except the very old Hillside Village. The greatest
quantity of bones came from Kialegak in the southeastern part of the
island; fewer from the Gambell region at the northwestern tip. This
is in keeping with present local distribution of this bird on St. Law-
rence Island.

AETHIA CRISTATELLA (Pallas) Crested Auklet

The crested auklet, one of the common birds of St. Lawrence Is-
land, is represented in 16 diggings, all from the sites at the northwest
end of the island, and not at all from Kialegak at the opposite end,
where it is replaced by the paroquet auklet, just as the two species
complement each other’s local range today. The old Hillside Village
yielded 4 humeri; Miyowaghameet (4 cuttings) many bones; Ievoghi-
yogameet (6 cuttings) yielded still more, as many as 20 humeri, and
1 sternum being found in one digging alone; Seklowaghyaget (2 cut-
tings) produced several bones; and the recent Gambell site (2 dig-

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

gings) revealed many more, as many as 11 humeri and 3 sterna in one
digging.
AETHIA PUSILLA (Pallas) Least Auklet

The least auklet is represented in 3 diggings from 3 villages at Gam-
bell (Miyowaghameet, Ievoghiyogameet, and the recent Gambell
site). Only a few bones were found in all, the total being 4 humeri and
1 sternum.

FRATERCULA CORNICULATA (Naumann) Horned Puffin

In spite of their abundance and size neither of the puffins inhabiting
St. Lawrence Island seems to have figured very largely in the diet of
the ancient Eskimos. Remains of the present species were found in 8
diggings representing the following sites: Miyowaghameet, Kialegak,
and Ievoghiyogameet. Most of the bones were found singly; in 2 dig-
gings more than 1 bone was found (2 in one case, 3 in the other).

LUNDA CIRRHATA (Pallas) Tufted Puffin

This puffin is more numerously represented than the horned spe-
cies. It figures in 14 diggings from both ends of the island (Gambell
and Kialegak). The specimens come from ends of the chronological
series of excavations—from Hillside Village, Miyowaghameet, levo-
ghiyogameet, Kialegak, as well as from the recent Gambell site.

Family STRIGIDAE Owls
NYCTEA NYCTEA (Linnaeus) Snowy Owl

The snowy owl is represented by a pair of metacarpals and by a
few fragments, both from cuttings at Kialegak. The absence of bones
of this species from the other sites and from the other diggings at
Kialegak may mean that owls are not looked upon as a food supply as
long as other birds are available.

ETHNOLOGY.—WNeuwly discovered Powhatan bird names.| JOHN R.
SwANTON, Bureau of American Ethnology.

Dr. Alexander Wetmore, assistant secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution, has called my attention to an article in The Auk for July,
1933 which contains a number of bird names in Indian not apparently
recorded elsewhere. The article is entitled Topsell’s ‘Fowles of heauen’
and was read by its author, Bayard H. Christy, at the fiftieth meeting
of the American Ornithologists’ Union, Quebec, October 18, 1932.

1 Received October 30, 1933.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 SWANTON: POWHATAN BIRD NAMES 97

Edward Topsell, it seems, who died about 1638, was ‘‘an English
clergyman, and sometime curate of St. Botolph, Aldersgate,” chiefly
remembered as the author of a Historie of four-footed beastes and a
Historie of serpents, which were printed in 1607 and 1608 respectively.
“Tt now appears,’ says Christy, ‘‘that, having projected a third work
on The fowles of heauen, he progressed with it so far as to complete
a first part—perhaps one fifth of the contemplated whole. The dedica-
tion is to Baron Ellesmere, the Lord Chancellor; to him, as may be
supposed, the MS. was transmitted; and from a descendant of his the
Huntington Library acquired it. Resting today in the archives of that
library, it forms part of the Ellesmere Collection, and bears the iden-
tifying number, E L 1142.” From internal evidence it appears that it
was written “‘before the end of the year 1614, and perhaps a year or
two earlier than that.”’

Among the birds illustrated are nine from Virginia, eight of which,
all but The Crane of Virginia, are accompanied by their Indian names
which Christy gives and attempts to identify as follows:

-“The Aushouetta (=the Thrasher?)
The Aupseo (= the Bluebird)
The Aiussaco (= the Flicker)
The Artamokes (=the Blue Jay)
The Chuguareo (=the Red-winged Blackbird)
The Chuwheeo (= the Towhee)
The Chowankus (= the female Towhee?)
The Tarawkow Konekautes (= the Sandhill Crane)

“A: Black-macke of Brasilia is also figured which manifestly is a
tanager.”’

At the end of the volume is a prospectus indicating the birds which
were to be treated in subsequent parts, and among these are eight
more Virginia birds, all but one of which, the Turkey Cocke, have their
Indian designations. These are the “‘Kaiwk, Manasscneau, Meesse-
nouns, Pockway, Poocgueo, Poppogattuweo, and Teauh.”’

While the term “Virginia”? had a somewhat extended use in Top-
sell’s time, its appearance and the date of compilation of the manu-
script show conclusively that we must look to the Powhatan language
for the origin of the names. This is important because it means the
addition of fourteen or fifteen words to our scanty material from this
_ Algonquian dialect. Not being a student of Algonquian myself, I
have submitted these words to two fellow members of the Bureau
of Ethnology, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt and Dr. Truman Michelson, to

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

Prof. Frank G. Speck of the University of Pennsylvania, and Prof.
John M. Cooper of the Catholic University of America, who have
kindly furnished the following notes: |

Aushouetta. Attention might be called to a bird called ahshowcut-
ters, mentioned by Strachey, which had “‘carnation-coloured wings.”
Speck says this is perhaps the red-start, the term being derived from
the word for ‘‘fire”’ (cf. Penobscot skunt-e’s, ‘‘little fire,’ or ‘‘little
flame’’), from its red flashing wings and tail, pointing out that in
Cuba it is known as the candelita for the same reason. Commenting
on this, Cooper states that the Téte-de-Boule Cree word for ‘‘fire”’
is ickwude.?

Aupseo. Speck points out that this name is evidently identical with
Oklahoma Delaware a’psi-o which signifies ‘‘he is white,” white and
light blue being covered by the same term.

Atussaco. The Téte-de-Boule Cree term obtained for this bird by
Cooper wurakéné’o, is evidently unrelated, but that for crow, adyda’sio
is rather close. The common Cree word for raven, and often for crow,
he gives, however, as ka’kago.

Artamokes. None of the informants could suggest a parallel.

Chuguareo. Hewitt gives the following names for this bird: chégan
in Narragansett (Williams), tsowgheres in Abnaki (Rasle), chog-luskw
in modern Abnaki (K.A.), tschoqualt or tschukquallt in Delaware
(Zeisberger), tskennak in modern Delaware (Anthony), assiggenauk
(siggenauk) (Tanner), auchugyeze in Pequot (Stiles). Speck gives the
Penobscot word as tcugwala'so and states that it is derived from the
bird’s call as are also the Delaware terms. Cooper says that the
Téte-de-Boule Cree name is mt’kwo tcatca’k’ero, in which mi’kwo
signifies “‘blood,” and tcatcak is onomatopoetic. ‘“The Téte-de-Boule
children, when they hear or see a redwinged blackbird, imitate its call
by a half-chanted articulated verbalization, as follows: teak’ tcak’
tcak’ teak’-lawé’, the last é being very long.”’

Chuwheeo. Cooper reports having once recorded the Téte-de-Boule
Cree word for this bird as pasté’cic, but feels none too sure of it and
in any case there is evidently no relationship.

Chowankus. No suggestion was ventured. The form of this word is
rather similar to Strachey’s cheawanta, ‘‘a robin red-breast,” but that
may be merely accidental.

2 In the notes furnished by Dr. Cooper, ¢ is equivalent to English sh; 4 to English
u in but; ’ indicates a glottal stop; and * is a voiceless or barely audible sound. Prof.
Speck has the following special signs: i- a closed vowel like ee in queen; n: and t: length-
ened consonants equivalent to nn and tt; aan obscure vowel like ein English her; ‘an
aspiration following a vowel or consonant.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 WALKER: CADDO POTTERY 99

Tarawkow Konekautes. Hewitt gives the following synonyms:
tare’gan (pl. tare’gok) in Abnaki (Rasle), taroecka in the Algonquian
dialect of New Sweden, tale’ka in Delaware (Zeisberger), tazinek in
Narragansett (Williams). He thinks ‘‘konekautes”’ signifies “‘long
legged,’ and is supported by Speck who gives the Delaware form of
the word as kwun7i-ka't.

Kaiuk. Hewitt gives kaa‘kow or kaiakou in Abnaki Gedy and
points out that the same word is given by Strachey in the form
cotahqwus. Cooper states that the Téte-de-Boule Cree term for the
American herring gull is kio’k “2, and that the Albany Cree on James
Bay call this bird ktack, the common tern being kia’ck “6cic.

Manasscneau. Cooper gives uki’skimanisé’o, kingfisher, the Téte-
de-Boule Cree term, as involving a possible explanation.

Meessenouns. Michelson says that this word seems to signify ‘“‘little
big-partridge,”’ perhaps indicating a small specimen of some bird
known as “big-partridge.’’ Dr. Wetmore suggests that it was prob-
ably the quail.

Pockaway and Poocgueo. Michelson thinks that one, and perhaps
both, of these names were intended for the pheasant. Cooper suggests,
rather doubtfully, that pockaway may be related to Téte-de-Boule
Cree pick, “‘night-hawk,” and cites pépické’o (given by another in-
formant as papaskio) as the name of the ruffed grouse in the same
language. Dr. Wetmore thinks that the bird intended by these two
names was the ruffed grouse, or possibly the prairie chicken.

Poppogattuweo. According to Michelson this word seems to indicate
some bird making a noise as it alights. Speck says it may possibly
refer to the quail, the Mohegan-Pequot word for which would be
bopu’kwati-s, “the spotted or speckled little (bird).’’ Cooper mentions
as a possible analogy Téte-de-Boule Cree papasté’o, the name of one
of the woodpeckers.

ARCHEOLOGY.—A variety of Caddo pottery from Louisiana: W.
M. WALKER, Bureau of American Ethnology. (Communicated
by JoHn R. Swanton.)

The accidental discovery of an ancient burial ground near the town
of Natchitoches, La. during the summer of 1931, reported by the wri-
ter in the Smithsonian Explorations volume for that year, has made
possible the identification of the type of pottery made by the Natchi-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-
ceived December 8, 1933.

100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

toches, one of the constituent members of the Caddo confederacy.
This identification rests not alone on the finding of European trade
objects in immediate association with the Indian artifacts but is
further strengthened by documentary evidence tending to show that
the site stands on or near the village of the Natchitoches first visited
by Henri de Tonti in 1690. As the detailed proof of this assertion has

Fig. 1—Polished and engraved bowl, black with red filled lines.
Typical Natchitoches pottery. X#.

been offered in the complete report already submitted to the Bureau,
no attempt will be made to repeat it, even at the risk of appearing
dogmatic.

The principal significance of this discovery is that it establishes
not only the pottery type of this particular tribe but also shows it to
be practically identical with that of a closely allied tribe, the Oua-
chita. Thus we have a key which it is hoped will help unlock the major
problem confronting the archeologist in the Red River region—the
ancient remains attributable to the Caddo tribes. The published re-
ports of such workers as Moore,” Harrington,’ and Pearce,’ with their

2 Moors, C. B. Antiquities of the Ouachita Valley. Jour. of the Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.
14: 1. 1909.

3 HARRINGTON, M. R. Certain Caddo sites in Arkansas. Indian notes and .mono-
graphs, Mus. Amer. Ind. Heye Foundation. N. Y. 1920.

4 Prarce, J. E. The archaeology of east Texas. Amer. Anthrop. 34: 4. 1982.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 WALKER: CADDO POTTERY 101

many excellent illustrations, have laid the ground work for detailed
comparative studies which will be rendered easier after further deter-
mination of the other archeological components of historic Caddo cul-

Fig. 2—Bottle fragment, Natchitoches type, incised but not polished. X#.

ture, such as those furnished by the Adai, Yatasi, Petit Caddo, and
Grand Caddo.

Unfortunately of the pottery vessels found at the Cane River site
near Natchitoches practically none were recovered intact, but enough
fragments were obtained to give a good idea of the nature of the ware
and its decoration. In form they range from conical bowls, cup-like
bowls with flaring collars, small jugs and pots, to subglobular bottles

102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

with short necks. The quality of the ware also varies from coarse,
crude, undecorated poorly fired pieces to highly polished, engraved
specimens rubbed with ochraeous coloring matter—the typical Red
River Ware of Moore and Harrington. The bow] fragment seen in fig.
1 is of this latter type, bearing traces of red paint only in the engraved
portions of the collar, while its companion from the same burial, fig. 2,
bears only an incised decoration much more crudely executed and lacks
the final polish of the bowl. All of the ware is heavily shell-tempered,
whether decorated or not. This is in sharp contrast to the condition
reported by Harrington for the Caddo pottery described by him from
southwestern Arkansas, but may perhaps be due to greater abundance
or availability of the mussel-shell material at the Natchitoches site
nearer the mouth of Red River. The paste is grayish in color, but
turns reddish after firing.

Decoration of the Natchitoches pottery was produced apparently
only by the incising and engraving techniques, as no sherds bearing
cord markings, punctate, stamped, ridged, or rouletted designs were
present, nor was there any use of paint other than in the color-filled
engravings already noted. The designs most typically found are made
up of combinations of parallel straight and curved lines, interlocked
scroll meanders, and rounded spots, with reticulated or hachured
spaces intervening. Decoration applied after drying and firing may be
best described as incised, that completed after polishing, as engraved.
The shiny black polish on the bowl may have been achieved after
dipping the vessel in bears’ oil after firing, a process recorded by
Bushnell for the Choctaw.*® Elements most commonly found in the
bowl designs comprise four spiral arms appearing to radiate from
a circle on the under side of the vessel which is always left as a cleared
space free from any decoration. In the case of the small cup-like bowls
a different band of design forms the encircling collar of the vessel,
generally employing a zig-zag motif with large spots. One bowl found
had five instead of the customary four spiral arms radiating outward
from the central circular area on the bottom over the body of the
vessel.

Small pipe bowls not over two inches high were also manufactured
out of the same kind of shell-tempered clay (Fig. 3). They are in the
form of a cone set into a cup-shaped base and lack an attached stem,
thus differing completely from the forms found by both Moore and
Harrington farther up Red River.

5 BUSHNELL, D. I. Jr. The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, Louisiana. Bur. Amer. Eth-
nol. Bull. 48: 12. 1909

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 WALKER: CADDO POTTERY 103

The closest resemblance to the Natchitoches pottery is that found
by Moore on the Ouachita river at Glendora Plantation and Keno
Place. Both in shape and decoration these vessels are almost dupli-
cates of those found at Natchitoches, the explanation of which is that
the Ouachita and Natchitoches were found living together at the site
visited by Tonti on Red River, and the trading path between the
distant settlements of the two tribes is clearly shown on La Fon’s
map of Louisiana as late as 1806. Which tribe is to be regarded as the
originator of this ceramic style is not certain from the data at hand.

Fig. 3—Natchitoches pottery pipe bowl. Note possible property
mark scratched on front. Xl.

The northernmost limit of distribution of this kind of pottery
seems to be along the Arkansas river in the vicinity of Pine Bluff,
Arkansas. Moore found at the Douglas site and at the site near Greer
unmistakable specimens of Natchitoches-Ouachita ware and it was
present also at the Battle Place site on Red River. More recently
Pearce has described and figured the same kind of pottery from far-
ther west in the Red River section of East Texas® which may also be
Natchitoches in origin as the early historians note an upper and a
lower village of this tribe some 100 leagues apart on Red River. It is
important to note, however, that this ware differs somewhat from
that found by Harrington in southwest Arkansas and regarded by
him as of Caddo manufacture. Although the technique of decoration

6 PEARCE op. cit. Plate 23 a.b.

104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

is much the same there are stylistic differences that are quite notice-
able. The scroll, for instance, is not so prevalent a motif as in the
Natchitoches ware. The characteristic vessel forms of the latter are
also absent, though there is present a greater variety of shapes. This
is not to be taken as an indication that Harrington’s pottery may not
also be Caddo, but only that it does not conform to the ceramic pat-
tern here identified as belonging to the Natchitoches-Ouachita divi-
sion of the Caddo confederacy. When the village site of the Kadoha-
dacho or Grand Caddo somewhere in the great bend region of Red
River, can be located definitely and its archeological remains studied
we may be in a position to see the relationship of these two types of
pottery more clearly.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1056TH MEETING

The 1056th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 20th,
1933, President O. 8. ADaMs presiding.

Program: J. G. THompson: The use of physical methods for testing purity
of metals ——Some of the common metals such as aluminum and zine have
been produced recently in extremely pure forms, approaching absolute
purity. The new and improved properties of these superpure metals have
convinced metallurgists that amounts of impurities formerly considered to
be unavoidable and not objectionable can no longer be so regarded; a few
thousandths of one per cent are no longer negligible.

The Bureau of Standards is attempting to prepare iron as pure as poemIbID
in order that the basic properties of this fundamentally important metal
may be determined. A state of purity has been attained such that the exact
determination of the purity and of minor changes in the purity, in subse-
quent operations, has become a real problem. Chemical analysis is limited
in its usefulness. The possible use of various physical methods has been con-
sidered, including spectrochemical analysis, the determination of thermal
emf, permeability, and critical temperatures but it appears that none of these
determinations yield the desired information. The most promising method
for the determination of purity in high purity iron appears to be the deter-
mination of the temperature coefficient of resistivity but further information
concerning the effect of details such as annealing treatment is needed.
(A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. P. W. Wurtr, RoznspEr, HAWKESWORTH, RAMBERG,
HuMPHREYS, TUCKERMAN, Kracek, and Rawpon.

Louts JorDAN and H.S. Rawopon: The preparation of metal single crystals
and their utilization in metallurgical studies.—The properties of metal single
crystals are obviously the fundamental properties of the polycrystalline
metals which are in very day use in scientific and engineering applications.
These fundamental properties are modified in polycrystalline metals by the

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 105

effects of different crystal lattice orientations in adjacent grains and of grain
boundary effects. It is logical to study such modifying effects by the prepara-
tion and examination of single crystal and bi-crystal metal specimens. One
of the major problems of present day physical metallurgy is the study of
the so-called ‘‘creep”’ of metals, that is, the slow and sometimes continuous
plastic deformation of metals which are subjected to prolonged loading at
temperatures which are relatively high as compared with the melting point
of the metal in question. Creep tests of single crystal and bi-crystal metal
specimens are promising much in this field of metallurgical study.

Metal single crystals may be quite readily formed either from the solid,
the liquid, or the gaseous phase of a metal by several methods: (1) by strain-
ing and annealing a solid bar or strip of the metal; (2) by growing a metal
“icicle” or ‘‘stalactite”’ by slowly raising a metal rod from the surface of a
mass of liquid metal; (3) by slow deposition on a wire of atoms from metal
vapor; (4) by lowering a crucible of liquid metal through a furnace; (5) by
slowly cooling a stationary crucible of liquid metal so arranged that all cool-
ing proceeds from one point on the crucible.

Metal single crystals exhibit several peculiarities in both physical and
chemical properties. Indentations made on single crystals by conical or
spherical indenting points produce patterns characteristic of the crystal
lattice of the metal (square or hexagonal). Single crystal bars broken in ten-
sion deform to ribbon-like cross-section and break with a chisel-edge frac-
ture instead of the familiar conical fractures of polycrystalline bars.

The chemical activity of different planes of atoms in the metal crystal
lattice varies to such a degree that it is possible, by a suitable selection of
etching reagents, to develop on the surface of single crystal specimens etched
patterns characteristic of several simple lattice planes, e.g., the cubic, octa-
hedral, or dodecahedral faces of the cubic lattice of copper. This furnishes a
simple visual method of determining the crystal orientation in single crystal
test specimens. (A wthors’ abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. HAWKESWORTH, HumpuHrReEys, H. L. Curtis, and
BRICKWEDDE.

1057TH MEETING

The 1057th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October
14th, 1933, President O. S. Apams presiding.

Program: Harry DiamMonp: Recent developments in radio aids to air navi-
gation.—The paper discussed recent developments in directional guidance
of aircraft by radio. Point to point guidance along the civil airways of the
United States is provided by a network of radio range-beacons. Means have
been developed for furnishing either aural, visual or combined aural and
visual indication of the position of the airplane with respect to the beacon
courses. A single transmitter and antenna system for simultaneous trans-
mission of phone weather broadcasts and the beacon signals has also been
developed. A recent major improvement in the beacon network is the re-
placement of the loop transmitting antennas by a new type of antenna
system, called the TL antenna. The latter was developed to eliminate irregu-
lar and erratic course variations occurring at night.

A system of radio landing aids permitting safe landing of airplanes under
zero conditions of ceiling and visibility was also described. The system com-
prises three elements; a low power radio range-beacon for giving guidance to
the landing airplane along the proper approach to the airport, an ultra-high
frequency landing beam for giving vertical guidance and marker beacons for

106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

indicating the longitudinal position of the airplane. On the airplane a single
crossed-pointer type instrument combines the indications from the first two
elements, while the marker beacon signals are heard in the headphones.
Successful tests of the system at College Park, Md. and Newark, N. J. were
described and a movie reel of a completely blind landing was shown. (Au-
thor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. HAwKESWORTH and Watson Davis.

W.B. Burcsss: Application of radio direction finding.—After a brief his-
tory of the investigations of atmospheric disturbances, means were discussed
for directional studies. It was shown that the cathode ray type of direction
finder, first developed by R. A. Watson-Watt, has proven most practicable.
Improvements in this type were traced from the first model, using twelve
hundred foot loops, to one recently developed by the U. 8. Navy, of unit
construction, employing loops less than three feet square, but of high sensi-
tivity. |

This model gives instantaneous unilateral indications of direction and
field strength on individual impulses. Two of these instruments are being
used in a study of atmospherics due to tropical hurricanes. It is believed that
their use will lead to an increase in the available data on such storms, and
that losses due to them may be minimized by advance information of the
storm path, as determined by the radio direction finder. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Mr. SEARLES.

The following informal communications were presented. 7

P. R. Hryu.—In 1863, Hermite proved that the number e, base of the
natural system of logarithms, is transcendental. Lindemann in 1872 made
use of this theorem to prove that e*?, where z is a rational number, is also
transcendental. From this, Lindemann wrote, it follows that 7 is transcen-
dental. The intermediate steps are not obvious. (Secretary’s abstract).

Discussed by Messrs. HAwKESWORTH and NAIMAN.

P. R. Hryyt.—The number z expanded to 708 terms contains the different
digits as follows:

Digit Number of Occurrences
75 |

OOnNrnoo»orwn- ©
or)
SS

(Secretary’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. DRYDEN and GOLDBERG.

Raymonp J. Seecmr.—The magnetic moment of the proton was deter-
mined by sending beams of ortho- and para-hydrogen through a nonhomo
geneous magnetic field after the manner of the earlier experiments of Ger-
lach and Stern.

Fermi made a calculation of the magnetic moment of the hydrogen mole-
cule. The largest contribution to the magnetic moment of a hydrogen mole-
cule comes from the rotation of the protons around the center of mass of the

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 = SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 107

molecule. The electron spins of the two electrons cancel each other vectori-
ally, and because the electrons rotate more slowly around the center of mass
than the protons, acting as though they were being dragged around by the
protons, the magnetic moment due to the rotation of the electrons is only
about 1-4 as large as that due to the protons. In addition, there is also the
magnetic moment due to the spin of the protons. In ortho-hydrogen the
two protons are so directed with respect to each other that the magnetic
moments due to their spins are additive, whereas, in para-hydrogen they are
opposed and cancel each other as do the electron spins.

The magnetic moment of para-hydrogen is, therefore, due altogether to
the rotation of the charges around the center of mass, and thus by a deter-
mination of the magnetic moment of para-hydrogen this moment can be
determined. Subtracting the magnetic moment due to the rotation of the
charges from the magnetic moment of ortho-hydrogen, the magnetic mo-
ment of two protons is determined.

The experimental result obtained for a single proton is between two and
three times the size of a Bohr magneton for a proton (eh/4mmc, where m
is the mass of the proton). (Secretary’s abstract.)

105STH MEETING

The 1058th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October
28th, 1933, President O. 8. ADAMs presiding.

Program: B. H. Carrouu: Present theories of photographic sensitivity.—
Photographic sensitivity is measured in terms of the density developed after
a given exposure and is not exclusively dependent on the extent of the photo-
chemical change in the emulsion. Statistical studies of the sensitivity of in-
dividual silver halide grains in emulsions, combined with other chemical
and physical evidence, indicate that the presence of nuclei of silver sulphide
or silver are an important factor in sensitivity. Their function is apparently
to increase the developability resulting from a given amount of photolysis
of the silver halide, as even in the presence of the nuclei the sensitivity of a
erain depends on the absorption of energy by the silver halide of that grain.
(A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Monusrr, Hryu, P. W. Wuitr, HumpHReys, GIsH,
KRACEK, SPENCER, H. L. Curtis and BRICKWEDDE.

R. M. Reeve: The history of color photography including recent develop-
ments, illustrated by lantern slides and an exhibit of color photographs.

Discussed by Mr. E. W. SPENCER.

F. G. BRICKWEDDE, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Notes

Washington at the midwinter meetings.—Washington scientists attended
the midwinter meetings of scientific societies in considerable numbers, and
took leading parts in their programs. At the Boston meeting of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science and affiliated societies, the fol-
lowing Washingtonians presided over the meetings of the organizations des-
ignated: R. E. Snoperass, Bureau of Entomology, Entomological Society

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

of America; C. O. APPLEMAN, University of Maryland, American Society of
Plant Physiologists; C. L. SHrar, Bureau of Plant Industry, Mycological
Society of America; W. R. Maxon, U.S. National Museum, American Fern
Society; W. D. LELAND, chairman of Section L (Historical and Philological
Sciences) of the A.A.A.S.

An outstanding address of the meeting was delivered by the Hon. Henry
A. WALLACE, Secretary of Agriculture, who spoke before the general session
on Friday evening, December 29, under the auspices of Section M (Engineer-
ing). Mr. Wallace’s subject was The social advantages and disadvantages of the
engineering-scientific approach to civilization. He pointed out that the high
degree of individualism natural to most engineers had fitted in well with the
highly individualized society which characterized the growing period in
American history, but warned his hearers that it cannot be expected to fit
into the cooperative or socialized phase which we are now entering. Particu-
larly must the engineer give up his attitude of impersonal detachment, in
which he accepted support from men who exploited his work and relieved
him from any feeling of responsibility for its social consequences. Mr. WaL-
LACE called upon his hearers to promote a broader education and a more
humanistic outlook among engineers.

Among the scientific exhibits at the Boston meeting were two prepared
by bureaus of the Federal government: one from the Melrose, Mass. station
of the Bureau of Entomology, showing methods used in fighting the gipsy
moth and other insect pests; the other from the National Bureau of Stand-
ards, showing aerodynamic tests of automobile body models, an optical
strain gauge, a cement turbidimeter and a test for fatigue in airplane propel-
lers.

During the Christmas week another group of scientific meetings were
held in Philadelphia. Among the participating bodies were the Society of
American Bacteriologists, at which sixteen papers were presented by Wash-
ington scientists; the American Statistical Association, the American Eco-
nomic Association, the American Farm Economic Association, the Econo-
metric Society and American Association of University Professors. At all
of these meetings Washingtonians were duly represented.

The American Anthropological Association, of which Dr. Joun Mont-
GOMERY CoopER of the Catholic University of America is secretary, met at
Columbus, Ohio.

At the meeting of the Geological Society of America and its affiliated
societies, held in Chicago, Dr. W. H. TWENHOFEL, secretary of the division
of geology, National Research Council, presented two papers.

The meeting of the American Psychoanalytic Association, of which Dr.
WiuuiaM A. Waitt of St. Elizabeth’s Hospital is vice-president, was held in
Washington, December 26 and 27.

Washington was also the scene of the joint meeting of the Archaeological
Institute of America, The American Philological Association and the Linguis- —
tic Society of America, Dec. 27 to 29; George Washington University acted
as host institution.

At the request of the World Calendar Association, Inc., Mr. Henry W.
Brarce, co-chief of the weights and measures division of the Bureau of
Standards, attended meetings held in Philadelphia on December 28, 1933,
under the auspices of the American Statistical Association, and presented
a paper on calendar revision. Mr. Brarcer supported the 12-month, equal-
quarters plan of revision, as opposed to the 13 equal months plan.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 109

Bureau of Plant Industry.—Following the retirement of Dr. W1LLIAM A.
TAYLoR as Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, KNowLEes A. RYERSON became Chief of the Bureau
January 1, 1934. Mr. Ryerson was formerly head of the Division of Foreign
Plant Introduction of the Bureau. He holds the degrees of B.S. and M.S.
from the University of California.

At the same time FreprrRIcK D. Ricuery, formerly in charge of the Bu-
reau’s corn investigations, was appointed Associate Chief of the Bureau, to
succeed Dr. Karu F. KELLERMAN, who has been placed at the head of a new
Division of Plant Disease Eradication and Control in the Department. Mr.
RicHey is a graduate of the University of Missouri with the degree of B.S.A.
In his new position he will give special attention to the Bureau’s research
activities.

Life-saving trap.—A patent on a trap attachment to safeguard small mam-
mals and birds and to make trapping more efficient, recently granted to
ALBERT M. Day, of the Bureau of Biological Survey, has been dedicated by
Mr. Day to the free use of the public. The new device is known as the Bi-
ological Survey pan spring and is already on the market. It is a small, de-
tachable, thin steel spring to be inserted between the pan and the base of a
standard steel trap and can easily be adjusted to prevent the capture of any
of the lighter animals common in a given locality. The use of the attachment
also helps trappers, who lose time and effort when a trap in a carefully se-
lected location is sprung by unsought animals or by birds.

Radio talks —The following radio talks have been made by Washington
scientists under the auspices of Science Service. They were sent out over the
network of the Columbia Broadcasting System: Dr. O. E. Baknr, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, The population prospect, December 13; J. B.
Kincer, U.S. Weather Bureau, Is our climate changing to milder?, January 3;
Dr. Pau 8. Gautsorr, U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, The mystery of the ocean,
January 10.

Assistant Secretary of the Interior Oscar L. CHAPMAN of the Department
of the Interior gave a radio talk January 8 over the Columbia Broadcasting
System’s Station WJSV in Washington. The subject of his talk was the use
and value of the national parks.

Recommendations for Weather Bureau.—A committee of the Science Ad-
visory Board, consisting of Dr. IsaAiaH Bowman, Dr. Karu T. Compton,
CuHarRLEs D. RexEp and Dr. Ropert A. MILLIKAN, chairman, has presented
to the Secretary of Agriculture its preliminary report, recommending certain
changes and measures of reorganization in the reporting and forecasting of
weather in the United States. Primary recommendations are two: first, that
the air-mass analysis method, already in use in certain European countries,
be adopted in this country as rapidly as practicable, to supplement the
method now in use here: second, that all meteorological activities now con-
ducted by several separate agencies be integrated into one central organiza-
tion, under the Weather Bureau, except for the activities necessary to the
Army and the Navy. In addition to these two major recommendations, the
committee also considers the following innovations desirable: a certain de-
centralization of the general forecast work of the Weather Bureau by the
establishment of more numerous district forecast centers in place of the
five now existing; an extension of climatological work, looking toward long-

110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

range forecasting; efforts toward cooperation with other countries in the
Northern Hemisphere; postgraduate training for Weather Bureau meteor-
ologists, and the establishment of a permanent Weather Bureau Committee
to advise on matters of weather service and policy.

Science in the recovery program.—Among the Federal projects approved
by the Public Works Administration, five allotments indicate a recog-
nition of the value of scientific research as part of the recovery program.

Two allotments were made to the National Planning Board. One of
$35,000 provides for a program to discover, correlate, and study the re-
searches and surveys now being made throughout the country on such sub-
jects as natural resources, population distribution and trends, health prob-
lems, local planning, and any other field which has a direct bearing on na-
tional welfare.

A second allotment of $250,000 to the National Planning Board is to
stimulate the preparation of state, regional, local and city plans by sending
technical advisers out to visit the local communities.

The Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
received $70,000 for the construction of an industrial farm by-products
laboratory at Ames, Iowa, where the state agricultural college and experi-
ment station is located. :

An experimental study of stream pollution in the upper Mississippi River
is provided for by an allotment of $15,000 to the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries.
This Bureau also received $127,300 for the survey and improvement of
streams and lakes in various sections of the country and to provide a scien-
tific basis for such operations.

A new project of the Civil Works Administration includes the exploration
of archaeological sites in five different states: Florida, Georgia, North
Carolina, Tennessee and California. The work of excavation will provide
employment for a total of approximately 1,000 men.

Allocation of more than $1,750,000 of funds for new construction on
government property near Beltsville, Md., as a part of the Public Works
program will enable the U. S. Department of Agriculture to develop there a
model experiment station for agriculture. |

A national experiment in land use, devoted to studying the prevention of
soil erosion and providing for removal from cultivation of submarginal land
instead of the average land required in the crop reduction programs, is
being undertaken cooperatively by the Replacement Crops Section of the
Agricultural Adjustment Administration and the Soil Erosion Service of
the Department of the Interior. The experiment was authorized upon the
recommendation of Secretary of Agriculture WaLLAcr and Secretary of
Interior Ickus. It will cover two million acres of land in 10 different regions.

The Bureau of Fisheries was allotted in August by the Public Works Ad-
ministration a sum of money amounting to $309,000 to be expended on some
37 projects including repairs and reconditioning to fish hatcheries, repairs
to vessels, improvement to Alaska salmon streams, and the enlargement and
continuation of new construction at 4 hatcheries.

News BRIEFS

At the annual meeting of the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington, held December 15, the following elections were an-
nounced: trustees: Frank B. Jewett, Roswetu Miuuzmr, both of New York

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS gl!

City; officers of the board for three ensuing years: Euinuv Root, chairman,
Henry 8. PRITCHETT, vice-chairman, FREDERIC A. DELANO, secretary.

An aerial mapping project has been undertaken over large selected rural
areas in the South, under the auspices of the Civil Works Administration.

A summary of the earthquakes of 1933 based on data compiled by seis-
mologists of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, shows a total of about
forty “‘earth-shakers.’’ Of these five were destructive to property and human
ee ao damage estimated at $41,000,000 and approximately 2,000

eaths.

By cooperation of several scientific agencies with the Tennessee Valley
Authority, Indian mounds and other archaeological sites in areas to be ex-
cavated, flooded or otherwise disturbed will be given thorough scientific
exploration with the objective of salvaging all possible data and material.

It is announced that the International Scientific Radio Union will have
its Fifth General Assembly in London, September 12 to 19. This is the
international organization for the promotion of radio research. Its Fourth
General Assembly was held in Copenhagen in 1931. Dr. A. E. KENNELLY
is the President of the Union and Chairman of its American Section. Dr.
J. H. Dex~iincrer, Vice Chairman of the American Section, was recently
appointed chairman of the Union’s Commission on Radio Wave Propaga-
tion.

The International Radio Consulting Committee will have a meeting in
Lisbon, beginning September 22. This is one of three advisory committees
established by the international telegraph and radio conferences; the other
two are on telegraphy and telephony, respectively. The International Radio
Advisory Committee has had two previous meetings, The Hague, 1929 and
Copenhagen, 1931.

Professor Max Berean, Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in
Dresden, Germany, gave a lecture entitled Some recent work in the chemistry
of proteins and amino acids at the George Washington University school of
Medicine on Tuesday, November 28, 1933.

The December lecture on the Smith-Reed-Russell series at the School
of Medicine, George Washington University, was delivered by Dr. Howarp
T. Karsner, Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Western Re-
serve University. Dr. Karsner’s subject was Rheumatic heart disease.

More than 48,000 acres of national forest land were planted to trees
this fall, the U. S. Forest Service reports. This total covers practically only
a half-year, but it is greater than the acreage planted in the national forests
in any preceding 12-month period. Plantings in the national forests in 1932
aggregated 24,900 acres, in 1931 they were 26,000 acres. Complete figures
for 1933 are not yet available.

PERSONAL ITEMS

CuestsrR C. Davis has been appointed administrator of the Agricultural
Adjustment Act by Secretary of Agriculture Watiacsz, with the approval
of President RoosEVELT.

112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

WILLIS 8. GreaG has been appointed chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau,
succeeding Dr. CHARLES 8. MARVIN, retired.

Dr. WALTER C. LowpERMILK has been appointed vice-director of the
Soil Erosion Service of the Department of the Interior.

Dr. H. C. Dickinson, chief, heat and power division, National Bureau
of Standards, has been appointed by Secretary of Commerce DANIEL C.
Roper, a member of the committee on uniform traffic laws and ordinances
which is charged with conducting a re-survey of the standards recommended
by the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety as a basis for
traffic laws and ordinances in many of the states and municipalities. The
committee will hold its first meeting in Washington, January 17 and 18.

Mr. J. W. Green, of the department of terrestrial magnetism, Carnegie
Institution of Washington, returned from Toronto, Canada, December 23,
1933, where he had carried out an inter-comparison of the magnetic stand-
ards of the Carnegie Institution of Washington with those of the Meteoro-
logical Service of Canada.

Prof. Grorcre W. Carver of Tuskegee Institute delivered a lecture at
Howard University, December 14.

Miss J. Buss, chief, thermometry section, Bureau of Standards, was
elected on January 4 to the office of Vice President of the Quota Club.

The Abbé GrorGres LEMAITRE, who has been visiting professor at the
Catholic University of America, was designated for the award of the Mendel ~
Medal for 1934 by Villanova College on January 12.

Dr. Neru E. Stevens of the Bureau of Plant Industry was elected Presi-
dent of the American Phytopathological Society at the mid-winter meeting
of the Society at Boston.

@Obituary

Homer CoLuarR SKEELS, botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, died Janu-
ary 3 at East St. Louis, Illinois, where he had been spending the holidays
with his daughter. Mr. SkEELS was born July 31, 1873, at Grand Rapids,
Michigan, and received his elementary education in that city. He graduated
from the Michigan Agricultural College in 1898 with the degree of Bachelor
of Science, following which he was in charge of private parks in Joliet, IIli-
nois, for a number of years. He came to the Bureau of Plant Industry in 1907
and served there continuously until his death. During the years spent in the
Department of Agriculture, Mr. SkrEts built up a very comprehensive col-
lection of economic seeds, now numbering nearly 45,000 samples, which
work brought him a nation-wide reputation as an expert in the identification
of seeds. He was a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science, and in addition to the Washington Academy of Sciences was a
member of the Botanical Society of America, the Botanical Society of Wash-
ington and the Biological Society of Washington.

anaes . sie ae ‘ ry) Ori nr aed
a ys. 4 Ob etek beng i i ¥ at te i x
} Ne 1a f 7

Botany. —Two new varieties of Salix seouleriana Barratt.

- Zoology. Two new species of pearly, fresh-water mussels
Boh ig ts UPA 53S aeadie's

' yuk
ste ete tee ee eee ee cea

Wablees, —A new ems of Trematodes belonging to the subfamil
EDWIN LANTON. 00s oe ree hee be a

‘Ornithology _—Bird bones from Eskimo ruins on St. a eee Ielan l,
ee en ae

Sommvruic Nor an NEWS. <0 -esse es essassseee of rf

-Onrrvarr- —Homer CoLiar SKEELS. . vets tei aad Sie Smme Nereis anak ay

Vou. 24 Marca 15, 1934 No. 3

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JOURNAL

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VoL. 24 Marca 15, 1934 No. 3

PETROLOGY.—Some magmatic problems.) CLARENCE N. FENNER,
Geophysical Laboratory.

For many years the causes of magmatic differentiation have been
a subject of very great interest to petrographers. As much as a hun-
dred years ago Scrope suggested that a main cause of variation of
magmas was to be found in the sinking of early formed crystals, and
Lyell believed this to be the true explanation. Later, various other
explanations were advocated by different students, but there was no
general agreement as to their efficacy or applicability. The theories
were expressed in rather vague general terms and lacked precision.

Comparatively recently N. L. Bowen has shown, by skilful labora-
tory work and admirable reasoning, in just what manner the separa-
tion of successive solid phases from a silicate melt should modify the
composition of the residual liquid, and the way in which the results
might be applied to natural magmas. His views have gained wide ac-
ceptance, and probably most petrologists now regard the essential
problems of differentiation as solved.

There is, however, a danger that in the enthusiasm aroused by a
notable advance, expectation will be too great, and the possibility
of the operation of other processes will be overlooked. There are some
geologists who are not yet prepared to accept all the implications of
this theory of differentiation, and who feel that it would be well to
proceed a little more cautiously and to test more carefully by field
observations whether all its requirements are met. They would ask
its advocates to give consideration to some apparent discrepancies
and endeavor to bring them into accord. It is my purpose to describe
certain occurrences that seem incompatible with some of the require-
ments of the theory as heretofore enunciated. It is hardly necessary
to emphasize that our whole conception of the properties of magmas

1 Presidential address, presented before the Geological Society of Washington, De-
cember 13, 1933. Received Dec. 21, 1933.

113

114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

and of the processes operating in the depths of the earth are involved
in the question of differentiation.

All petrologists are familiar with the general principles of the theory
of differentiation by crystal separation, but I wish to call special
attention to one or two of its main points. It is supposed that the
magma that begins to differentiate is basic, probably basaltic. As this
cools, crystals separate, and by their separation the composition of
the remaining liquid is caused to change progressively. In the normal
sequence the liquid passes from basalt through increasingly siliceous
andesitic types to a very siliceous rhyolite. The points to be noted
are that rhyolite is the coolest liquid of the series, and that basic
constituents have been eliminated by a freezing out process. It fol-
lows necessarily that if rhyolitic magma should engulf fragments of
basic rock it should not be able ordinarily to melt them or take them
into solution, as the minerals of such basic rocks are almost wholly
of the sort that, theoretically, have already been frozen out of the
magma in the process by which rhyolite has been generated. This idea
has been regarded by many writers as almost axiomatic. Accepting
unreservedly the view that rhyolites have been formed in this man-
ner and only in this manner, they reason that it would be as illogical
to suppose that rhyolite magma could dissolve basic rocks as that a
salt solution that had deposited crystals could automatically reverse
the process and redissolve the crystals.

On the other hand, in the course of field work, I have come across
two remarkable occurrences in which there seems to have been direct
solution of large amounts of basic rocks in rhyolite. The incompati-
bility of these phenomena with theoretical expectations seems to place
before petrologists a problem requiring solution before we can be
satisfied that the orthodox scheme of differentiation is broad enough
to cover all phases of the subject. |

The first of these occurrences was met in the Katmai region. At
the time of the great eruption of Katmai, the main activity was in
the central crater, but important manifestations occurred in the near-
by area known as the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. We believe
that these subsidiary outbreaks had their origin in an intrusive sill
that was thrust into the horizontal Jurassic sediments that underlie
the valley, and broke through to the surface at numerous points.
The chief of these secondary eruptive centers was at Novarupta.

From the nature and distribution of the ejected material of the
eruption the chief events may be stated as follows:

At the main crater of Katmai enormous quantities of pumice and

MARCH 15, 1934 FENNER: MAGMATIC PROBLEMS tS

lapilli were ejected in violent explosions, and carried to great dis-
tances. At the vents in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes the vio-
lence was much less, but pumiceous material frothed over the rims
and was swept down the Valley in one or more incandescent floods
that resembled the glowing clouds of the West Indian eruptions; these
we have called the hot sand flows. Novarupta, at the head of the
Valley, participated in this phenomenon and was probably a chief
contributor to the sand flows. Later, it shot up a spray of fiery frag-
ments which were deposited in thick beds in its immediate vicinity
and built up an encircling wall. Its last act, most important for the
information on assimilation that it gives, was the slow extrusion of a
mass of viscous, glassy lava, which became rigid on the surface as it
cooled, and broke into great blocks from the effect of the uplifting
forces. This material represents what might be termed a gigantic
quenching experiment. It shows in diagrammatic manner the proc-
esses of solution and incorporation of xenolithic blocks, arrested at
a stage of incomplete digestion by the congealing of the mass.

The new, live magma ejected at Katmai crater and at all the other
vents is a very siliceous rhyolite with about 77 per cent silica. Speci-
mens of uncontaminated lava from Katmai, from Novarupta, and
from the Valley have been analyzed by several chemists, and they
show an almost identical composition. Moreover, there is good reason
to believe that the composition of the live magma rising from the
depths remained constant from beginning to end of the eruption.
Where variations occur there is direct evidence of near-surface con-
tamination.

At all the vents, however, contamination seems to have taken
place on a large scale and in similar fashion. Evidence might be
cited for each, but it is at Novarupta that it is most easily and con-
vincingly demonstrated.

The uncontaminated rhyolite pumice emanating from all of the
vents is a typical pumice, greatly inflated and almost white. It differs
much in appearance from the minutely vesicular rhyolitic glass of
Novarupta, but this is due simply to their different degrees of in-
flation. The only crystals that appear in either are rare phenocrysts
of quartz and oligoclase. Where the rhyolite has become contami-
nated the undigested xenoliths have usually the composition of basic
andesites of various kinds, and the textures of surface lavas, though
sedimentary fragments are fairly plentiful, and there are inclusions
of plutonic rock. |

The contaminated pumice of the early phases of eruption, which is

116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

found in abundance, shows alternations of white and black bands.
The black bands, which are sharply contrasted with the white, con-
tain numerous phenocrysts of labradorite, pyroxene, and magnetite
in a brown glass, but in the final stages of reaction these phenocrysts
almost disappear in solution, and the siliceous and basic liquids
become thoroughly mixed.

In many specimens it is evident that not only was the basic ma-
terial melted down, but it became so thoroughly impregnated with
gases that it participated in the inflation to a pumiceous froth.

These variegated and banded pumices plainly show a remarkable
association of two sharply contrasted types of lava, but because of
the fragmental nature of the pumice, such material is not well adapted
to show how the basic bands originated. Novarupta supplies to per-
fection the missing evidence. The rock that forms the dome represents
the closing stages of activity. The violently explosive phenomena
had subsided, and though the rock is shattered, the blocks are large
enough to exhibit the mutual relations of the heterogeneous constit-
uents.

Novarupta forms a nearly circular pile of lava about 800 feet in
diameter, consisting of rock that is banded on a large scale. Associated
with the dark bands and evidently the source from which they origi-
nated may be seen thousands of basic xenoliths in all stages of diges-
tion. Some still preserve a sharply bounded, angular outline, but the
process of digestion stopped just as others had become softened and
were tending toward an elongated form, and as fragments were float-
ing away. Still others reached the stage of disintegration at which they
formed lenticular masses of scoria, and finally nothing was left but
dark bands. Some of the bands extend for many feet, but at their
terminations they always wedge out into the rhyolite. There is no
reason to doubt that the rhyolite is the all-embracing matrix and that
the dark bands represent included material. Furthermore, the separa-
tion between light and dark bands is usually abrupt. This could
hardly be so if the two had been stirred together in a violently agi-
tated pool of lava, nor could such a separation have survived the tur-
bulent mixing that the constituents would have undergone, if the
basic material had become involved in the rhyolite during its rise
from the depths. For this reason, and because the basic material
itself has the characteristics of surface andesites, it is believed that
the contamination is a near-surface phenomenon.

The features described characterize all the rock of the dome. The
specimens and photographs exhibited demonstrate more effectively

MARCH 15, 1934 FENNER: MAGMATIC PROBLEMS 117

than descriptions the processes that were in operation just prior to
the congealing of the Novarupta lava. Microscopic examination of
this contaminated material shows undoubted evidence of solution,
but the best evidence on a microscopic scale is obtained from certain
specimens that belong to an earlier stage of activity, when solution
was probably going on more vigorously; these were thrown out during
the explosive phases.

In thin sections of these specimens some of the minute xenoliths
still have a definite form, though the boundaries are very irregular in
detail. In many of them the original texture is preserved, and they
may be recognized commonly as basic andesites, less often as sedi-
ments. Some of the xenoliths became softened, and their shape was
distorted. Some were even drawn out into long tongues. The ground-
mass progressively lost its textural characteristics and became a dark
brown glass which has an index of refraction appropriate to an andes-
itic glass.

Contrary to what we might expect, we find that basic xenoliths
were softened and dissolved with more ease than those having the
composition of acid andesites.

Further mixture of rhyolite magma and basic liquid is seen in thin
sections to present an extremely streaky appearance, and irregular,
dark clots are numerous. The phenocrysts of the inclusions consist
of pyroxene, iron ore, and plagioclase. Less often hornblende and bio-
tite appear. The phenocrysts were somewhat more resistant to attack
than the groundmass, and many of them became free and floated
away, but they too yielded to attack and became much corroded, es-
pecially the feldspars.

Commonly the feldspars have the composition of acid to basic
labradorite, and are much zoned in oscillatory fashion. In their de-
struction many show a curious effect. The interiors became riddled
with brown glass, which had a decided preference for the more calcic
zones. This form of replacement went so far that while the outlines
of the crystal were preserved, the whole interior, except for small is-
lands of unreplaced feldspar, concordantly oriented, consists of iso-
tropic glass.

In the thick deposits of ejecta from the main crater of Katmai,
xenoliths and banded pumices are present, as at Novarupta, but, on
the whole, digestion of xenoliths has been much more complete, es-
pecially in the later pumices. They carry phenocrysts of labradorite,
pyroxene, and ore, from which the matrix has been wholly dissolved
away, uniformly dispersed through a frothy glass. Little bipyramids

118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 24, NO. 3

of quartz are also present, as witnesses of the rhyolitic partnership
in the combination, and the bulk composition of the mixture, as
shown by analyses, is that of an acid andesite. It does not seem
possible to escape the conclusion that in the vents of the Katmai re-
gion rhyolite magma melted down and incorporated a large quantity
of basic rock. It is especially noteworthy that the introduction of this
cold material into the magma, and its assimilation, did not cause pre-
cipitation of crystals in the rhyolite. A large amount of heat must
have been available, either as excess temperature or as heat of reac-
tion. 7

I will now take up the second example of assimilation of basic rocks
by rhyolite to which I have referred. This was found along Gardiner
River in Yellowstone Park. Here many of the conditions were very
different from those in the Katmai region, and the resulting phenom-
ena differ in many respects, but assimilation is equally remarkable.

At this place Gardiner River forms the boundary between a wide
area of basalt on one side and a still wider area of rhyolite on the
other. Both are believed to be of Upper Tertiary age, but the basaltic
flow occurred long enough prior to the rhyolite for erosion to produce
a surface of considerable relief. At this particular place there was evi-
dently a steep, eastward-facing slope of basalt, with small ridges and
other minor irregularities rising from it, and probably with accumula-
tions of boulders lying on its surface and at its foot. From some un-
known source enormous extrusions of rhyolite were poured out, which
advanced upon this slope and flooded it. Subsequent erosion has worn
down the surface in the vicinity so that it is now a nearly level plain,
and, what is a very fortunate circumstance, Gardiner River has cut
a steep-sided little valley or gorge at just the place best suited to show
the contact phenomena.

The contact is very irregular in detail, but, in general, basalt occurs
along the sides of the gorge at lower levels whereas the contaminated
rhyolite is at higher levels. Small ridges and knobs of basalt protrude
through the rhyolite. A little farther back from the river on the west
is the wide area of basalt and on the east that of rhyolite. Exposures
along the rocky gorge are excellent for a distance of 1,500 feet.

The contaminated rhyolite along the contact contains myriads of
basalt xenoliths, ranging in size from those several feet in diameter
down to minute chips. These show varying degrees of digestion, and
the rhyolite shows varying degrees of contamination. Probably some
of this xenolithic material was derived from loose blocks, but cer-
tainly not all of it, for the rhyolite had remarkable powers of penetra-

MARCH 15, 1934 FENNER: MAGMATIC PROBLEMS 119

tion. This is plainly demonstrated by the way in which it found its
way into the basalt, which is penetrated in places by veins of rhyolite
of paper-like thinness. The magma also soaked into some of the inclu-
sions almost as if it were water, and by some process of interchange
of constituents not fully understood, the xenolith, while preserving a
definite outline, was replaced by rhyolite until only a dim phantom
was left. Multitudes were acted upon in this manner, but great quan-
tities of others were disintegrated and incorporated in the rhyolite.

A very remarkable effect is found in a number of places in the ex-
posures along the rocky walls of the gorge. In a typical exposure the
rock at the top of the bluffs, 30 feet or so above the water, is largely
rhyolite. As we descend the slope, the proportion of rhyolite decreases
irregularly, and that of basalt increases, until most of the rock is solid
basalt, but this is cut by ramifying and anastomosing veins or dikes of
rhyolite. Such dikes locally attain a foot or more in width, but many
of them are narrow seams. The rhyolite in these may be quite pure
or may be much contaminated with basalt and have an intermediate
composition. The dikes decrease in size and number going downward,
and at the water’s edge very little rhyolite is found. We have here a
strange case of a lava flow becoming an intrusive. ,

In another place, nearly vertical cliffs, 15 or 20 feet high, are com-
posed essentially of unaltered basalt, but locally this is penetrated
in the most intricate and irregular manner by more or less con-
taminated rhyolite. This injected material is in small to minute vein-
lets. Both the rhyolite and the hybrid rock contain numerous vesicles
lined with tridymite crystals, and the passage of gases is indicated by
open pockets and pipes of irregular shape. The vertical zone of basalt
penetrated in this manner by rhyolitic liquids and gases has a width
of 1 or 2 up to 4 or 5 feet. It is made up of rhyolitic veins, seams, and
bands; basalt fragments; and hybrid material, inclosed in walls of
solid basalt. Forty or fifty per cent of basalt in the mixture is not
unusual. In places irregular, dike-like offshoots of rhyolitic affinity
extend into the walls, but individually they have no great length and
soon fade out.

In some places a zone or system of dikelets of this character has
penetrated 40 or 50 feet downward into basalt.

At one place at the top of the cliffs a mass of normal-looking rhyo-
lite with gently inclined flow banding sends out a horizontal tongue,
3 or 4 feet thick, under a capping of basalt for a distance of several
feet, and appears much contaminated. Then it becomes thinner and
is succeeded by a network of rhyolite veins in basalt. Immediately

120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 3

adjacent, a vertical pillar of basalt is bounded by rhyolite on the two
exposed sides. The rhyolite is contaminated at the contact but has a
normal appearance a few feet away.

Minor effects are seen that suggest the action of gases distilled
from the rhyolite into the basalt rather than the action of liquid
rhyolitic magma. Certain small xenoliths of basalt inclosed in very
vesicular, tridymite-bearing rhyolite became granular and porous,
and minute tridymite scales were deposited in the pores.

This penetration of veins of rhyolite into solid basalt for long dis-
tances indicates a remarkable mobility of the rhyolite magma, even if
we assume that it was forced into seams of the basalt under great pres-
sure of overlying magma. This mobility may be ascribed to its high
content of volatiles. What seems almost unbelievable is the ability
shown by the small tongues of magma that penetrate 25 to 50 feet
downward into masses of basalt within narrowly confining walls to
heat up and assimilate considerable quantities of cold rock, but the
relations seem to leave no room for doubt.

Great powers of assimilation are likewise shown by certain large
masses of rock at the top of the cliffs, well above the solid basalt.
These are composed of material in which contamination and assimila-
tion progressed so far that a uniform-looking, nearly aphanitic mix-
ture resulted. They have a color ranging from medium gray to a shade
nearly as dark as the basalt itself. Their appearance is that of fine-
grained andesites. Analyses were made of two homogeneous-looking
specimens of this hybrid rock. One has a composition corresponding
to 30 per cent basalt and 70 per cent rhyolite, and the other to 69
per cent basalt and 31 per cent rhyolite. The heat necessary to assimi-
late such large amounts of basalt may have been supplied in part by
overlying magma, but this explanation is hardly applicable to the
dikelets of rhyolite that penetrated long distances downward into
masses of cold rock, corroding and assimilating as they went. These
phenomena seem to require either a very highly superheated magma
or the development of heat by chemical reactions, but both of these
suppositions are excluded in the theory of crystal differentiation as it
has been formulated. We seem to have evidence everywhere in this
area of the ability of the rhyolite to accomplish things that the theory
of crystallization differentiation has declared to be impossible.

Microscopic examination of the rocks confirms in every way the
inferences derived from field studies. In the contaminated rocks thin
sections reveal inclusions of basalt in rhyolite in various stages of
reaction and disintegration. Their borders became greatly corroded,

MARCH 15, 1934 FENNER: MAGMATIC PROBLEMS 121

and fragments floated away in the liquid. In these fragments the
minerals of the groundmass commonly underwent partial disintegra-
tion, the inclusion taking on a sooty appearance, and in the later
stages of solution only sooty specks were left. Phenocrysts in the
basalt were set free and became distributed through the rhyolite, but
though they persisted longer than the groundmass, they also were
attacked.

In the hybrid rocks in which assimilation was so complete that they
appear homogeneous, the microscope shows a strange assemblage of
minerals indicative of their hybrid origin. Taking as an example the
specimen previously mentioned as having a composition equivalent
to 70 per cent rhyolite and 30 per cent basalt, we find corroded pheno-
erysts of olivine, pyroxene, and labradorite derived from the basalt
xenoliths, together with quartz and sodic orthoclase derived from the
rhyolite magma, scattered through a perfectly uniform-textured fine
groundmass derived from mutual reactions. It consists of pyroxene,
ore, oligoclase, and orthoclase. In most places in the section all evi-
dence of xenolithic inclusions has disappeared, though here and there
traces persist in small, dimly perceptible areas which are a shade
darker than the rest. Some of these form narrow borders to clusters of
basic xenocrysts, but most of the xenocrysts were freed from their
original matrix.

I believe that sufficient evidence has been given to show that both
in the Katmai region and in Yellowstone Park rhyolitic magma has
been able to dissolve large amounts of basic andesites and basalts.
The question may be asked as to why such phenomena have not been
more commonly described. The explanation is doubtful. They may
have been overlooked or they may be very rare. It is hardly to be ex-
pected that a magma appearing at the surface will long retain the
temperature required to produce such effects. Also, there are indica-
tions that the retention of volatiles is an important factor in the proc-
ess. Ordinarily lava flows quickly give up their volatiles, but for some
strange reason the volatiles are sometimes retained for a long period.
Both in the Katmai region and in Yellowstone Park the lavas evi-
dently contained a large amount of volatiles, for they were in a very
mobile state at the time that assimilation occurred. This implies in
turn that the inner equilibrium appropriate to the small external pres-
sure had not been attained.

When we consider these factors, it does not appear likely that lava
flows will often show such results ashave been described. Theimportant
fact, however, is that they are sometimes capable of producing them.

122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 3

With plutonic magmas of similar composition it is different, and
we might more commonly expect solution. Asa matter of fact, granit-
ic bodies show phenomena that might reasonably be interpreted in
this manner, but ordinarily investigators have been so convinced of
the impossibility of such a process that they have preferred to look
for other explanations. Though contamination or hybridization of
granites has been frequently recognized as an obvious fact, it has been
explained as due to a mechanism by which basic minerals that are
out of equilibrium with the acid magma are dissolved in only infinites-
imal portions at a time, and new minerals are simultaneously precip-
itated; in other words, it is the process formulated by Bowen in the
reaction principle. This is an important principle and must frequently
be operative. When the amount of basic rock is small in comparison
with the acid magma, the heat requirements of this process are not
excessive, and it is not incompatible with the theory of crystallization
differentiation. It has frequently been invoked, but, without depreci-
ating its value when properly applied, we may say nevertheless that
it has been used by many writers as a facile means of solving difhicul-
ties and of explaining almost everything in the way of assimilation.
From the nature of its postulated action it is almost impossible to
disprove its application in plutonic bodies in any specific instance,
whatever may be the truth of the matter. We should have to show.
that the disappearance of basic minerals is a process of true solution
and is not accompanied simultaneously by the precipitation of new
minerals farther along in the reaction series. However, when one ob-
serves such opposing phenomena as the common persistence of zoned
feldspars in magmas, which illustrate the lack of equilibrium that the
reaction principle is supposed to correct, one may doubt whether
the principle is as universally operative as has been assumed, but
doubt is not disproof. In the Yellowstone rocks, however, the amount
of contamination is so great and the phenomena are of such a nature
that it seems out of the question to explain the results by this prin-
ciple. Especially in the veins of rhyolite that penetrated many feet
downward into basalt, does it not seem certain that the chilling effect
of mere contact with cold walls and xenoliths, to say nothing of as-
similation, would be far beyond the capacity of the rhyolite magma to
meet unless there were inherent in it heat reserves not recognized in
the theory of crystallization differentiation? It seems still more ap-
parent that the reaction principle cannot explain assimilation in the
Katmai lavas, for here no precipitation of new minerals occurred—
the contaminated lava remained a liquid.

MARCH 15, 1934 FENNER: MAGMATIC PROBLEMS 123

Harker has described beautiful examples of hybrid effects at the
contact of granites and granophyres with basic rocks on the island
of Skye. Some of the phenomena described by him, such as phantom
xenoliths and the penetration of threads of magma into the walls, are
matched by those of Yellowstone. In spite, however, of his observa-
tion of obvious assimilation on a very considerable scale, he is im-
pressed with the great difficulty of accounting for the solution of any
large amount of cold rocks by the new magma. He has written:
“The insuperable difficulty to any such theory is that it demands an
enormous amount of heat to raise the solid rocks to the point of melt-
ing and to melt them.” He therefore explains the phenomena on Skye
by supposing that the injected rocks were still hot or even partly
fluid when the new injections occurred. The evidence for this is not
altogether convincing, and it looks as if he had felt forced to make
this assumption.

The problem of the heat supply may be freely admitted to be one
of great difficulty. A number of writers have recognized that the same
problem exists in other phases of volcanism, where it is equally strik-
ing. The suggestion has been made that the development of heat is
essentially a surface phenomenon, due to the combustion of escaping
gases or to the oxidation of ferrous iron in the magma. However,
combustion of gases that have left the magma does not develop heat
in the place where it is required, and in neither the Katmai nor the
Yellowstone hybrid rocks was the ferrous iron oxidized. Chemical
analyses and microscopic examination show that beyond doubt.
Exothermic heat reactions within the magma itself have also been
discussed, and diametrically opposing conclusions have been reached.
I doubt if this process has been by any means thoroughly explored;
in fact, our knowledge is far from complete regarding the state of
combination of the silicate constituents and the dissolved gases in
magmas, or of the reactions that take place when the magma rises
from a region of great pressure to one of little pressure. In the Katmai
and Yellowstone lavas the presence of a considerable amount of vola-
tiles is indicated, and this points to a state of delayed equilibrium.
Whether the reactions that finally ensued, permitting the volatiles
to escape, were exothermic or not, is a question that must await
further information.

However, in these hypothetical exothermic reactions there may
possibly be found a means of reconciling phenomena of assimilation
with the theory of crystallization differentiation. We may suppose
that a rhyolitic magma is formed at depth by the freezing out of basic

124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

phenocrysts. It is therefore a relatively cool liquid; but it may con-
tain within itself latent possibilities of exothermic reactions, which
are developed by the change of equilibrium consequent upon its rise
to the surface and the escape of volatiles. By this means it may be
reheated to such a degree as to be enabled to take into solution the
very minerals that had been precipitated.

This is highly speculative, and even if it represents some approxi-
mation to the truth, it necessitates a considerable revision of ideas
that have been based upon a theory in which such a conception has
found no place.

Moreover, if it should eventually be found that exothermic reac-
tions supply a source of heat for assimilation, this fact would not
necessarily be dependent upon the generation of rhyolitic magma by
crystallization differentiation, or have any relation to it. It would
leave the question open as to how rhyolites have been formed.

Without going farther into this, if the phenomena that have actu-
ally been observed have the meaning they seem to have, large
amounts of basic rocks were dissolved by the rhyolites. In whatever
manner this may have been accomplished, it is not satisfactorily
explained by current theories. Many subsidiary problems relating to
magmas are likewise involved. I will leave all these for future con-
sideration, only expressing the belief that the important requirement

now is to examine without bias the facts as they are found in the
field.

CHEMISTRY.—83, 4-dimethoxy-5-chloro-benzylidene di-amides.* Ray-
MOND M. Hann. (Communicated by ATHERTON SEIDELL.)

Noyes and Forman? have recently studied the reactions of a num-
ber of liquid aldehydes with acetamide and isolated the resulting al-
dehyde di-amides. The purpose of the present investigation was an
extension of the reaction to include a solid aldehyde and a variety of
acid amides.

Raiford and Lichty’s’® orientation of the mono-chloro vanillins
provides a foundation for the preparation of chloro veratric aldehydes
of known configuration. Methylation of 5-chloro vanillin has yielded
5-chloro veratric aldehyde and this has been condensed under suitable
conditions with acetamide, propionamide, n-butyramide, n-capro-
amide and benzamide.

1 Received December 2, 1933.

2 NoyrEs and Forman. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 55: 3493. 1938.
3 RaAIFORD and Licuty. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 52: 4576. 1930.

MARCH 15, 1934 HANN: DI-AMIDES 125

EXPERIMENTAL

5-Chloro veratric aldehyde (3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chloro benzaldehyde).
50 grams of 5-chloro vanillin was dissolved in 150 cc. 10 per cent Na--
OH and 600 cc. H:.O, heated to complete solution of the separated
sodium salt, cooled and held at 35° C., 100 cc. of dimethyl sulfate
added to the constantly stirred solution, and the solution maintained
alkaline to phenolphthalein by addition of 10 per cent NaOH (10 ce.
every 3 to 5 minutes, a total of about 1400 cc. being required). When
about 250 ec. of NaOH had been added on oil separated and was ~
brought into solution by addition of 50 cc. more dimethyl sulfate.
When this second portion of sulfate had reacted the alkaline solution
again separated an oil and on cooling this solidified. The solid was
filtered off, washed with H,O and the filtrate acidified, and 3.7 grams
unchanged chloro vanillin recovered. Yield of crude material 50
grams; quantitative. The substance was recrystallized from 50 per
cent alcohol for analysis.

5-Chloro veratric aldehyde crystallizes in colorless, soft, glistening
needles, and melts to a clear colorless oil at 57° C. (cor.).

Analysis: 0.2182 gram gave 0.1553 gram AgCl equivalent to
17.61 per cent Cl. Theory for C,H,O;Cl =17.68 per cent Cl.

§-Chloro-veratrylidene di-amides. One molecular portion of alde-
hyde, two of the desired amide, and 1 cc. of glacial acetic acid were
heated at 140°-C. in a small flask for 15 hours. Water was given off
when acetamide and propionamide were used and a solid brown cake
resulted. The other amides gave brown liquid melt which solidified
on cooling. The melt was brought into solution by refluxing with alco-
hol and filtered through char. The colorless filtrate soon separated
crystalline material which was filtered, washed with alcohol, recrystal-
lized from alcohol to constant melting point, and analyzed. The yields
are almost quantitative. The data are summarized in table 1.

TABLE 1. Proprrtiss or 3, 4- DimEeTHOXy-5-CHLORO-BENZYLIDENE DI-AMIDES

Nitrogen Analysis
Product
3, 4-Dimethoxy-5-Chloro | , he Appearance Berean
Benzylidene £2 Ge)

Cale’d. Found
Di-acetamide 244-5 Colorless, crystalline powder 9.32 9.23
Di-propionamide Dao Colorless fine acicular needles 8.52 8.30
Di-n-butyramide 204—5 Colorless, glistening platelets 7.85 7.50
Di-n-caproamide 172-3 Colorless needles 6.79 6.76
Di-benzamide PAT Brilliant, soft, colorless needles 6.60 6.63

126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

SUMMARY

The aldehyde amide condensation reaction has been extended to
include a solid aromatic aldehyde with various aliphatic amides.

CHEMISTRY.—The isomeric oximes of ethyl vanillin. RAYMOND
M. Hann. (Communicated by ATHERTON SEIDELL.)

Ethyl vanillin (3-methoxy-4-ethoxy benzaldehyde) has long been
known, having been prepared by Tiemann? in connection with his
exhaustive research upon the structure of coniferin. The original
method of preparation, the interaction of vanillin and ethyl iodide in
the presence of ethyl iodide, has since been displaced by the cheaper
and simpler method of ethylation by diethyl sulfate in alkaline solu-
ip Coyee

In furthering an investigation upon the relationship between struc-
ture and taste in the vanillin series it was desired to investigate some
properties of the syn-oxime of ethyl vanillin. Because it was necessary
to prepare the anti-oxime, it seemed desirable to continue the study
of these derivatives and to correlate them with some known com-
pounds of the ethyl vanillin series.

The present paper reports the result of these investigations, and
outlines the indirect synthesis of ethyl vanillic acid in accordance
with the following series of reactions.

N-OH HON N
| | I
SHO CHOW He HC eee COUM
~ ~ AS
oc ~\ Jocn, "| Jocn, “\ /ocu,” \ /ocH ay aan
OC, OCH, OGH, OC, H; 7 eer
EXPERIMENTAL

Ethyl vanillin (3-methoxy-4-ethoxy benzaldehyde). ‘Twenty-five
grams of vanillin were dissolved in 75 cc. of 10 per cent NaOH solu-
tion and 200 cc. of H.O added. To the constantly stirred clear yellow
solution 45 cc. of practical diethyl sulfate (theory for 2 moles. 42.8 cc.)
were added and the suspension gradually heated to 65° C. when reac-
tion occurred. The solution was maintained alkaline to phenol-
phthalein by addition of increments of 10 cc. 10 per cent NaOH at

1 Received December 2, 1933.

2 TiIEMANN. Ber. Deutschen Chem. Gesell. 8: 1128. 1875.

3 BARGER, EISENBRAND, and SCHLITTLER. Ber. Deutschen Chem. Gesell. 66: 453.
1933.

MARCH 15, 1934 HANN: ETHYL VANILLIN 127,

approximate five minute intervals, a total of 70 cc. being required.
The solution was then heated rapidly to boiling, 100 cc. H,O added
and upon cooling to 50° C. crystallization occurred. When cold, the
ethyl vanillin was filtered and dried. Yield 24 grams. A second crop
of 0.8 gram crystallized from the other liquor. Total yield 24.8 grams
or 84 per cent of theory. This material was used directly for further
work. Recrystallization from 4 parts of 50 per cent ethyl alcohol gave
a product melting at 65° C. (corr.) in agreement with Tiemann.

Ethyl vanillin anti-oxime. Twenty grams of crude ethyl vanillin,
8 grams of hydroxylamine hydrochloride, 10 grams of sodium bicar-
bonate and 50 cc. of 95 per cent alcohol were heated under reflux for
one half hour. The addition of 200 cc. H.O caused separation of an
oil which rapidly solidified. Cooled, filtered, and recrystallized from
4 parts of 50 per cent alcohol the oxime was obtained in colorless gran-
ular prisms which melt at 102° C. (corr.) to a clear colorless oil.

Analysis: 0.1137 gram consumed 5.80 cc. 0.1 N acid equivalent to
7.14 per cent N. Theory for C,oH,3;0;N is 7.18 per cent N.

Ethyl vanillin anti-oxime acetate. One and nine-tenths grams of the
anti-oxime was heated to boiling with 10 cc. acetic anhydride, the ex-
cess anhydride decomposed by NaHCOs, and the separated solid re-
crystallized from 50 per cent alcohol. The compound crystallized in
fine glistening prismatic crystals which melt at 69° C. (corr.) to a clear
colorless oil.

Analysis: 0.0694 gram consumed 2.9 ce. 0.1 N acid equivalent to
5.85 per cent N. Theory for C,.H,;0,N is 5.91 per cent N.

Ethyl vanillin syn-oxime. Twelve grams of crude ethyl vanillin
anti-oxime was dissolved in 150 cc. ether and the hydrochloride pre-
cipitated by introduction of dry HCl and 25 ec. H.O, and the suspen-
sion added to a solution of 25 grams of Na,CO; in 250 cc. H.O. An
oil came down which rapidly solidified. Yield 10 grams. The solid
was recrystallized several times from 50 per cent alcohol, and finally
obtained in colorless brilliant crystals which melt at 98° C. (corr.) to a
clear colorless oil.

Analysis: 0.1069 gram consumed 4.5 cc. 0.1 N acid aquivalent to
7.21 per cent N. Theory for C:oHi;0;N is 7.18 per cent N.

Kithyl vanillonitrile (38-methoxy-4-ethoxy benzonitrile). Five grams
of ethyl vanillin syn-oxime was dissolved in 10 ec. acetic anhydride,
heated to 30° C., and allowed to stand for ten minutes. The excess
anhydride was decomposed by addition of 200 cc. 10 per cent Na,CO;
solution and the separated nitrite filtered and washed with H.O.
Yield 4.5 grams. Recrystallized from dilute alcohol it melted at 102° C.

128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 3

in agreement with Kefflert who prepared it by the action of ethyl
iodide on the potassium salt of ethyl vanillin.

Ethyl vanillic acid (3-methoxy-4-ethoxy benzoic acid). One gram of
ethyl vanillonitrile was boiled with 20 cc. of 10 per cent NaOH solu-
tion for one half hour, the solution cooled, and the acid precipitated
by dilute HCl. It was recrystallized from 25 per cent alcohol, separat-
ing in beautiful colorless needles which melt at 193—4° C. in agreement
with Tiemann.

SUMMARY

Kthyl vanillin has been oximated to the anti-oxime, which has been
isomerized to the syn-form, and the latter by the action of acetic an-
hydride converted to 3-methoxy-4-ethoxy benzonitrile. Alkaline hy-
drolysis of the nitrile leads to the previously described ethyl vanillic
acid, obtained by direct oxidation of ethyl vanillin.

4 KEFFLER. Jour. Chem. Soc. 119: 148. 1921.

PALEONTOLOGY .—WNew fossil fresh-water Mollusca from the Cre-
taceous and Paleocene of Montana.: Loris 8. RussELu, Geologi-
cal Survey, Ottawa, Canada. (Communicated by John B. Ree-
side, Jr.)

Dr. G. G. Simpson, of the American Museum of Natural History,
recently submitted to the writer a collection of non-marine mollusks
from central and southwestern Montana, material obtained under the
auspices of the United States National Museum. Most of the speci-
mens pertain to described species, but at least two new species and
two varieties appear to be represented. The writer is indebted to Dr.
Simpson for the opportunity of studying this collection, and to the
authorities of the U. 8S. National Museum for permission to publish
the following descriptions.

PELECYPODA: UNIONIDAE
Elliptio silberlingi, sp. nov.
Figs. 1 and 2.

Type.—U. S. National Mus. No. 75287A; paratype, No. 75287B. From
the Eagle coal mine, Bear Creek, Carbon county, Montana. Upper Paleo-
cene (‘‘Bear Creek’’ horizon).

Description.—Shell moderately large, elongate-ovoid, flattened. Beak low,
placed near anterior extremity, sculptured with two fine plications, slightly

1 Published with the permission of the Director, Geological Survey, Department
of Mines, Ottawa, Canada: Received Oct. 26, 1933.

MARCH 15, 1934 RUSSELL: FOSSIL MOLLUSCA 129

double-looped; also a pair of fine, diverging ridges extending from posterior
end of beak toward the posteroventral extremity. Anterior margin well
rounded; ventral margin sinuous, convex in front, slightly concave near
midlength; posterior extremity low, narrowly rounded, produced; posterior
dorsal margin broadly convex. A broad, shallow sinus extending downward
and somewhat backward from umbo. Surface marked by fine and coarse
lines of growth. Length of holotype, 98.8 mm.; height, 44.6 mm.; thickness,
as preserved, 16.3 mm.

Remarks.—This species clearly belongs to the group of “‘Unio”’ priscus
and its relatives, but may be distinguished by the elongate outline and pro-
duced posterior, as well as by the reduced beak sculpture. In a forthcoming
revision of the Canadian fossil Unionidae the writer erects a new subgenus
for the ‘‘Unio” priscus group under the genus Elliptio. More particularly,
the present species closely resembles, and probably is descended from, the
Judith River form identified by Stanton? as Unio subspatulatus.

The new species is named for Mr. Albert C. Silberling, of Harlowton,
Montana, in recognition of his services to paleontology.

Medionidus? senectus (White)

Unio senectus, White, U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr., Ann., Rept. for 1878, pt. 1,
p. 69. pl. 28, fig. 1, pl. 29, fig. $. 1883.

Remarks.—In his revision of Canadian fossil unionids, mentioned above,
the writer tentatively refers this species to the genus Medionidus Simpson.
This reference is based principally on the presence of postumbonal radiating
sculpture. It is probable that ‘‘Unio”’ senectus represents a genus absent from
the living fauna.

Medionidus? senectus declivis, var. nov.
Rigo:

Type.—U. S. National Mus. No. 75288; from SE. 4 of SE. 4, Sec. 10,
T. 5 N., R. 18 E., Sweetgrass county, Montana. Paleocene, ‘‘about 4000
feet above base of ‘‘No. 3,” with highest mammals from Crazy Mountain
Field, probably post-Torrejon.’”

Description.—Shell elongate, tapering posteriorly; posterior dorsal margin
broadly convex, sloping to the narrowly rounded posteroventral extremity.
Postumbonal radiating sculpture as in M.? senectus but more obscure.
Length of holotype, 76.4 mm., height, 41.2 mm.; thickness, as preserved,
16.8 mm.

Remarks.—Shells of this variety are associated at the type locality with
typical examples of M.? senectus, from which they differ in the characters
given above. Some examples from the upper Ravenscrag beds of Saskatche-
wan show characters intermediate between those of M.? senectus senectus
and the present variety. The differences may be only sexual, but it is note-

we. Geol sun; bull: 25721075 pl. 13; fig. 1. 1905.
3 Simpson, personal communication.

130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 24, No. 3

LAA eat
Vs
Ox (as

————
ay ©
|

/
Off? Wt
Us
'

Fig. 1.—Elliptio stlberlingi, sp. nov., holotype, X1.
ventral view.

Fig. 2.—Elliptio silberlingi, sp. nov., paratype, showing umbonal markings, X1.
Fig. 3.— Medionidus? senectus declivis, var. nov., holotype, <1.
tral view.

Fig. 4.—Campeloma vetulum pegmate, var. nov., holotype, X1. A, dorsal view; B,

Fig. 5.—Gontobasis ursarivulensis, sp. nov., holotype, X1. A, dorsal view; B, ven-

MARCH 15, 1934 RUSSELL: FOSSIL MOLLUSCA 131

worthy that the variety declivis appears to be absent from the Judith River
and contemporary faunas. All examples of this age seen by the writer have
the short outline and the broad posterior extremity.

GASTROPODA: VIVIPARIDAE
Campeloma vetulum (Meek and Hayden)

Paludina vetula, Meek and Hayden, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Proc., 8: 121. 1857:
Campeloma vetula, Meek, U. 8. Geol. Surv. Terr., Rept., 9: 587. pl. 42, figs. 14a, 14b.
1876.

Campeloma vetulum pegmate, var. nov.
Fig. 4.

Type.—U.S. National Mus. No. 75289; SW. 4 of NW. 4, Sec. 8, T.6N.,
R. 18 E., Wheatland county, Montana. About 75 feet above base of Judith
River formation, Upper Cretaceous.

Description.—Shell as in C. vetulum, but with a narrow, distinct shelf
along the posterior (apical) border of the whorls; body whorl relatively
less ventricose. Length of holotype (first whorl missing), 20.1 mm.; width,
11.9 mm.; length of aperture, 9.7 mm.

Remarks.—This variety occurs associated with C. vetulwm vetulum in the
Pale beds (upper Belly River) of Alberta.

MELANIIDAE
Goniobasis ursarivulensis, sp. nov.
area P

Type.—U. 8. National Mus. No. 75290; from the Eagle coal mine, Bear
Creek, Carbon county, Montana. Upper Paleocene (‘‘Bear Creek”’ horizon).

Description.—Shell of moderate size, elongate-concoid. Spire tapering,
length almost two-thirds that of shell; volutions about five, prominently
convex; suture linear, broadly impressed. Inner lip of aperture nearly
straight, outer lip strongly convex. Surface marked by numerous fine and
a few coarse lines of growth, and occasionally by obscure revolving mark-
ings. Length of holotype, 17.8 mm.; width, 9.0 mm.; length of aperture, as
preserved, 6.7 mm.

Remarks.—This species closely resembles, and probably is descended
from, G. sanctamariensis Russell‘ from the St. Mary River formation of
Alberta. The present species may be distinguished by the more slender shell,
and the lesser prominence of the whorls, which do not show numerous fine,
revolving lines. The distinction between these two species may be of value
in differentiating Upper Cretaceous from Paleocene strata.

* Canadian Field-Nat. 46: 81. fig. 4. 1932.

1382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 24, NO. 3

ZOOLOGY.—New genera and species of blood flukes from a marine
turtle, with a key to the genera of the family Spirorchidae.! Em-
METT W. Pricz, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated
by BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ.)

Among some trematodes collected by Dr. B. G. Chitwood and the
writer from a marine turtle, Chelone mydas, which died in the National
Zoological Park, March 8, 1932, were a number of specimens belong-
ing to the Spirorchidae, a family proposed by Stunkard (1921) for
trematodes occurring in the circulatory system of turtles. These speci-
mens were collected for the most part from washings of the digestive
tract, but in view of their affinities with species which have been
described from the blood vessels of other cold-blooded hosts, it ap-
pears certain that they had escaped from the blood vessels during
evisceration; a few specimens were collected also from washings of the
body cavities. These specimens were found to represent four new spe-
cies and three new genera, the descriptions of which are given in this
paper. In order to differentiate the new genera from related genera, a
key to the genera of the family Spirorchidae is appended.

Neospirorchis, new genus

Generic diagnosts.—Spirorchidae: Body greatly elongated, threadlike,
subcylindrical. Cuticula provided with fine transverse ridges but without
spines. Oral sucker moderately developed; acetabulum absent. Esophagus,
especially the posterior half, surrounded by unicellular glands; intestinal
tract similar to that of schistosomes. Genital aperture lateral, in posterior
half of body. Testis slender, more or less spiral, extending to intestinal
union; vas deferens arising from posterior pole of testis; cirrus pouch present.
Ovary slender, spiral, situated along posterior portion of testis. Seminal
receptacle and Laurer’s canal absent. Vitellaria extending from intestinal
bifurcation to near level of genital aperture. Eggs without polar processes.
Parasitic in marine turtles.

Type species.—Neospirorchis schistosomatoides, new species.

Neospirorchis schistosomatoides, new species
Figs. 1-2.

Description.—Neospirorchis: Body threadlike, 7.45 to 9.5 mm. long by
about 140 to 220u wide; pretesticular portion of body slightly flattened
dorsoventrally, posttesticular portion cylindrical or subcylindrical. Cuticula
without spines but marked with fine transverse ridges. Oral sucker sub-
terminal, 32 to 40u in diameter; acetabulum absent. Esophagus 595 to 680u
long, consisting of two parts about equal in length; anterior part slender,
posterior part about twice the width of anterior part and surrounded by uni-
cellular glands. Intestinal branches slightly sinuous, uniting near level of

1 Received November 18, 1933.

MARCH 15, 1934 PRICE: NEW BLOOD FLUKES 133

anterior pole of testis, forming a common cecum terminating near posterior
end of body. Excretory pore terminal; excretory vesicle Y-shaped. Genital
aperture lateral, about 1 to 1.2 mm. from posterior end of body. Cirrus
pouch weakly developed, enclosing a long, slender, muscular cirrus; cirrus
apparently protrusible, but not actually protruded in any of the specimens
available. Vas deferens relatively long and convoluted, arising from
posterior pole of testis. Testis long, slender, more or less spiral, and extend-
ing anteriorly as far as level of intestinal union. Ovary long, slender, more or
less spiral, and extending anteriorly from a point posterior to genital aper-
ture for about one-third the length of testis. Oviduct slender, extending
posteriorly to an ootype about 500u from posterior end of body; oviduct
joined here by vitelline duct and continued anteriorly as a slender tube ex-
panding to form the uterus. Seminal receptacle and Laurer’s canal absent.
Vitellaria well developed, extending in intercecal field from posterior end of
esophagus to intestinal union, thence continuing dorsal to common cecum
and terminating near level of genital aperture. Vitelline duct single, extend-
ing posteriorly to ootype and expanding there to form a large vitelline reser-
voir. Uterus slightly tortuous, containing 7 to 15 eggs, extending anterior to
genital aperture, then turning posteriorly. Eggs oval, 44u long by 32yu wide,
without polar prolongations.

Host.—Chelone mydas.

Location.—Visceral blood vessels.

Locality United States (Washington, D. C.).

Type spectmen.—U.S. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 32563; paratypes No. 32564.

Neospirorchis schistosomatoides appears to be more or less closely related
to Unicaecum ruszkowskii, a species described by Stunkard (1925, 1927)
from Pseudemys scripta, but differs from that species in the form of the di-
gestive tract and in the point of origin of the vas deferens. In N. schistosoma-
toides the digestive tract is of the same type as that found in members of the
family Schistosomatidae, while in U. ruszkowski the digestive tract consists
of a single cecum. The vas deferens in N. schistosomatoides arises from the
posterior pole of the testis, while in U. ruszkowski1 it arises from the anterior
pole of the testis, and extends parallel to the testis for its entire length.

The form of the digestive tract in N. schistosomatoides is of especial inter-
est, since this is the first species of blood fluke from cold-blooded vertebrates
which has a digestive system of the type characteristic for blood flukes oc-
curring in warm-blooded vertebrates. A tendency toward fusion of the in-
testinal ceca to form a digestive tract of the schistosome type has been
reported by Stunkard (1923) in specimens of Spzrorchis.

Amphiorchis, new genus

Generic diagnosis.—Spirorchidae: Body slender, subcylindrical. Cuticula
marked with fine transverse ridges. Oral sucker and acetabulum present.
Ksophagus slender, surrounded by unicellular glands; intestinal ceca slender,
not uniting posteriorly. Cirrus pouch well developed, containing a short
cirrus, internal seminal vesicle and prostate cells; external seminal vesicle
anterior to cirrus pouch. Testes two in number, one anterior and the other
posterior to cirrus pouch and ovary. Seminal receptacle and Laurer’s canal

134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

C
aero’ REB2G Ob.

ge &
9

5) - 5 y i mat

AIO & 02,08

=}
g
g
o

iS
Sop
5)

Fig. 1. Neosptrorchis schistosomatoides. Entire worm. Fig. 2. N. schistosomatoides.
Terminal portions of genital system. Fig. 3. Amphiorchis amphiorchis. Entire worm,
ventral view. Fig. 4. A. amphiorchis. Genital complex; reconstructed from serial
sections. Fig. 5. Learedius learedi. Entire worm; ventral view. Fig. 6. L. learedt.
Genital complex; greatly enlarged. Fig. 7. L. similis. Entire worm; ventral view.
Fig. 8. L. semilis. Genital complex; greatly enlarged.

ac. Acetabulum mg. Mehlis’ gland
C. Cirrus mt. Metraterm
cp. Cirrus pouch od. Oviduct
é. Egg Ov. Ovary
es. Ksophagus sr. Seminal receptacle
esg. Esophageal glands sv. ext. External seminal vesicle
ex.v. Excretory vesicle sv.int Internal eminal vesicle
gp. Genital aperture t. Testis
tnt. Intestine vit. Vitellaria

le. Laurer’s canal vr. Vitelline reservoir .

MARCH 15, 1934 PRICE: NEW BLOOD FLUKES 135

present. Vitellaria consisting of two groups of follicles, one group extending
from intestinal bifurcation to anterior testis, and the other from posterior
end of vitelline reservoir to near posterior end of body. Parasitic in blood
vessels of marine turtles.

Type species—Amphiorchis amphiorchis, new species.

Amphiorchis amphiorchis, new species
Figs. 3-4.

Description —Amphiorchis: Body elongated, 1.87 to 2.2 mm. long by
120 to 148u wide at level of posterior testis, oval to subcylindrical on cross
section. Cuticula without spines but marked by fine transverse striations.
Oral sucker subterminal, 40 to 44u in diameter; acetabulum circular, 40 to
64u in diameter, 476 to 510u from anterior end of body. Esophagus 255 to
320u long, surrounded by unicellular glands; intestinal ceca slender, termi-
nating blindly about 280u from posterior end of body. Excretory pore ter-
minal; excretory vesicle Y-shaped, the branches slightly longer than the
stem. Genital aperture median, immediately anterior to ovary. Cirrus pouch
oval, 60 to 80u long by 48 to 60u wide, enclosing a short, thick cirrus, a
moderately large internal seminal vesicle, and numerous prostate cells;
external seminal vesicle more or less globular, 40 to 60u in diameter, im-
mediately anterior to and slightly to right of cirrus pouch. Anterior testis
oval, 100 to 120u long by 80 to 88u wide, in front of external seminal vesicle;
posterior testis oval, 140 to 190u long by 100 to 120u wide, situated a short
distance caudal to posterior end of vitelline reservoir and separated from it
by a band of vitelline follicles. Ovary irregularly oval, 120 to 140u long by
54 to 80u wide, between testes and immediately posterior to cirrus pouch.
Seminal vesicle globular, 24 to 40u in diameter, posterior to ovary and sit-
uated in curve of vitelline reservoir. Mebhlis’ gland present, consisting of
relatively few large cells; Laurer’s canal relatively large, opening in mid-
dorsal line a short distance posterior to seminal receptacle. Vitelline reser-
voir large and curved; vitellaria consisting of two groups of follicles, one
group between intestinal bifurcation and anterior testis and the other be-
tween posterior end of vitelline reservoir and posterior end of body. Metra-
term simple, muscular. Eggs not observed.

Host.—Chelone mydas.

Location.—Visceral blood vessels.

Locality.— United States (Washington, D. C.).

Type specomen.—U.8. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 32565, paratypes No. 32566.

The genus Amphiorchis appears to be more closely related to the genera
Hapalotrema Looss, Spirhapalum Ejsmont, and Hapalorhynchus Stunkard
than to any of the other genera of Spirorchidae. Amphiorchis amphiorchis
is more slender and the testes are simple instead of being divided into pre-
ovarial and postovarial groups of follicles as is the case of the types of
Hapalotrema and Spirhapalum. In body form it resembles most closely
Hapalorhynchus gracilis Stunkard, but in that species the genital aperture
is dorsal and the anterior testis is situated posterior to the genital aperture
and seminal vesicle, while in A. amphiorchis the genital aperture is ventral
and the anterior testis is anterior to the seminal vesicle.

136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 3

Learedius, new genus

Generic diagnosis.—Spirorchidae: Body elongate, slightly constricted
equatorially, flattened dorsoventrally. Oral sucker and acetabulum present.
Esophagus long and surrounded by unicellular glands; intestinal ceca
slender, not uniting posteriorly. Genital aperture median or slightly to left,
near posterior end of body. Cirrus pouch present, largely filled by internal
seminal vesicle; external seminal vesicle present. Testes numerous, pre-
ovarial. Ovary deeply lobed, posttesticular. Laurer’s canal present. Eggs
with polar prolongations. Parasitic in circulatory system of marine turtles.

Type species.—Learedius learedi, new species.

Learedius learedi, new species
Figs. 5-6.

Description.—Learedius: Body elongated, 3.4 mm. long by 690u wide,
slightly constricted near equator of body, flattened dorsoventrally. Cuticula
with verrucae similar to, but smaller than, those of species of Schistosoma.
Oral sucker cup-shaped, 280u long by 240 wide, oral aperture subterminal;

_acetabulum circular, 340u in diameter, pedunculated, near equator of body,

Esophagus slightly tortuous, 1.02 mm. long, surrounded by unicellular
glands. Intestinal ceca slender, curving inward at level of acetabulum, ter-
minating near posterior end of body. Excretory pore terminal; excretory
vesicle Y-shaped, the branches of about the same length as stem. Genital
aperture about 360u from posterior end of body, slightly left of median line.
Cirrus pouch shaped somewhat like an elongated letter 8, its base enlarged
and lying about 360u from genital aperture, containing a slender internal
seminal vesicle, numerous prostate cells, and a protrusible cirrus; external
seminal vesicle transversely elongated, 144 long by 60 wide, to right of
base of cirrus pouch. Testes 28 in number, in intercecal field between ex-
ternal seminal vesicle and acetabulum. Ovary deeply lobed, more or less
dendritric, 240u long by 240u wide, posterior to external seminal vesicle.
Oviduct long and slender, arising at right side of ovary and expanding pos-
teriorly to form an elongated ootype; seminal receptacle postero-dorsal of
ootype; Laurer’s canal slender, opening in mid-dorsal line near level of ends
of ceca. Vitelline reservoir large, anterior to ootype. Vitellaria consisting of
small follicles forming a transverse band across body between intestinal
bifurcation and level of ‘posterior margin of acetabulum, then extending
posteriorly in extracecal fields to level of tips of ceca. Metraterm short and
containing a single egg. Egg fusiform, about 210u long (including polar
prolongations) by 28 wide.

Host.—Chelone mydas.

Location.—Circulatory system.

Locality.—United States (Washington, D. C.).

Type specomen.—U. 8S. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 32567.

Learedius similis, new species
Figs. 7-8.

Description.—Learedius: Body elongated, 2.2 mm. long by 320 wide,
slightly constricted at level of acetabulum. Cuticula with verrucae larger
and less numerous than those of L. learedi. Oral sucker subterminal, 160u
in diameter; acetabulum circular, 240u in diameter, pedunculated, about

MARCH 15, 1934 PRICE: NEW BLOOD FLUKES 137

750yu from anterior end of body. Esophagus about 170u long, surrounded by
unicellular glands; intestinal ceca slender, extending to near posterior end of
body. Excretory pore terminal; excretory vesicle Y-shaped, the limbs longer
than stem. Genital aperture almost median, 260u from posterior end of body.
Cirrus pouch somewhat S-shaped, its base about 1 mm. from genital aper-
ture, almost completely filled by internal seminal vesicle; external seminal
vesicle 180u long by 80u wide, situated as in L. learedi. Testes arranged as in
L. learedi, the exact number not ascertainable in the specimen available.
Ovary lobulated, 260u long by 120u wide, between external seminal vesicle
and vitelline reservoir, ventral to cirrus pouch. Oviduct dilated, arising from
right side of ovary; ootype short and surrounded by Mehlis’ gland; seminal
receptacle present; Laurer’s canal not observed. Vitellaria extending from
level of intestinal bifurcation to about middle of ovary and occupying entire
intercecal field anterior to testes. Egg fusiform, 234u long (including polar
prolongations) by about 12 wide.

Host.—Chelone mydas.

Location.—Circulatory system.

Locality.— United States (Washington, D. C.).
Type specimen.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 32568.

The descriptions of Learedius learedi and L. sumilis are each based upon a
single specimen, but in view of certain distinct differences they cannot be
regarded as the same species. These differences are as follows: L. s¢milis has
a much shorter esophagus and the intestinal bifurcation occurs much farther
cephalad of the acetabulum than in L. learedz; the testes are much less
numerous than in L. learedi; the cirrus pouch is relatively much longer and
encloses a larger internal seminal vesicle and fewer prostate cells than does
that of L. learedi; the ovary, while distinctly lobed, does not present the
dendritic appearance of that structure in L. learedi; and the vitellaria in L.
similis extend posteriorly only as far as the level of the middle of the ovary,
while in L. learedi they extend to the level of the tips of the ceca. The egg is
also somewhat different in the two species, that of L. semzlis being longer
and more slender than that of L. learedt.

In addition to the two species just described, Distoma constrictum Leared
must also be included in the genus Learedius. This species was described by
Leared (1862) from the “‘edible turtle” (also referred to in the same paper
as the ‘“‘common turtle’’), the specimens having been collected from the
heart, and submitted to Cobbold who regarded them as larval flukes. Almost
no description was given for this species aside from the size—‘“‘Their average
length was a line and a half, and the breadth about one third of this,’””—and
a few minor comments on the shape of the body and on the configuration of
the digestive tract. Judging from the figure accompanying the description,
the species is closely related to Learedius learedi described in this paper and
may actually be the same. However, the writer feels that the two forms
should be regarded as distinct until such time as a restudy can be made of
specimens from the same host and from the same locality as that from which
Leared’s specimens were obtained. The apparent points of difference be-

138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 3

tween the two forms are the longer and more serpentine esophagus and the
smaller number of testes in Leared’s species as compared with these struc-
tures in L. learedt.

In reviewing the literature concerning Dzistoma constrictum Leared, a
situation was discovered which involves the validity of the name of Leared’s
species as well as of the status of forms subsequently described by Monticelli
(1896) and by Looss (1899), which were regarded by them as the same as
D. constrictum Leared. This situation is briefly summarized as follows:

Distoma constrictum Leared, 1862, is preoccupied by D. constrictum Mehlis,
in Creplin, 1846, making Leared’s constrictum a homonym and, conse-
quently, unavailable. This fact was noted by Monticelli (1896) who de-
scribed under the name of Mesogonimus constrictus (Leared) a blood fluke
from ‘‘Thalassochelys caretta Linn.’ Despite the fact that he noted the
priority of names he continued to use the specific name constrictus through-
out the paper. In his discussion, however, he stated: “‘Per questo suo carat-
teristico aspetto, qualora avesse dovuto cambiar nome specifico, il distomide
del Leared avrebbe potuto meritar quello mistroides (da pustpoc-ov cucchi-
aio).”’ This statement was regarded by Stiles and Hassall (1908) as a re-
naming of Distoma constrictum Leared. Later Looss (1899) proposed the
genus Hapalotrema for Mesogonimus constrictus (Leared) of Monticelli, bas-
ing his discussion of this form on material collected by him from the heart of
“Thalassochelys corticata” at Abukir, Egypt. A comparison of the descrip-
tions and figures given by Monticelli and by Looss, however, show certain
differences which suggest that while the forms studied by them are unques-
tionably congeneric, they probably represent distinct species, and are not
the same as, or congeneric with, the species described by Leared. In view
of the foregoing, the following points must be considered: (1) The status of
D. constrictum Leared and of the name mistroides Monticelli; (2) the status
of the genus Hapalotrema Looss; and (3) the identity of Mesogonimus con-
strictus (Leared) of Monticelli and Hapalotrema constrictum (Leared) of
Looss. The solution of these problems appears to the writer to be as follows:

1. Since Distoma constrictum Leared is a homonym it must be renamed,
and since the name mzstrovdes indicates an anatomical character (spoon-like
shape of the body) of the species which Monticelli described as Mesogonamus
constrictus and which does not apply to Leared’s species, the specific name
mistroides must apply to Monticelli’s species. The writer, therefore, proposes
for D. constrictum Leared the new name Learedius europaeus.

2. Hapalotrema Looss was proposed as a genus for Mesogonimus constrictus
(Leared) of Monticelli and applies to that species and not to Leared’s spe-
cies, and since the specific name mistroides appears to be the valid name for
Monticelli’s form, the type of the genus is Hapalotrema mistroides (Monti-
celli, 1896) Stiles and Hassall, 1908 (syn. Mesogonimus constrictus (Leared)
of Monticelli, 1896; misdetermination).

3. Neither Monticelli nor Looss gave any indication as to the extent of
variation occurring in the specimens which they studied, and in view of this

MARCH 15, 1934 PRICE: NEW BLOOD FLUKES 139

lack of information one must assume that the drawings which they published
are representative of the forms which they had before them. A compari-
son of these drawings shows differences in the number of testes and in the
extent of vitellaria, and in body proportions which are as great as, or greater
than, those occurring in species of other genera. Monticelli’s figure shows 9
testes in the preovarial group and 16 in the postovarial group, whereas in
Looss’ figure there are 8 in the preovarial group and only 10 in the postova-
rial group. Monticelli’s figure also shows distinctly that the vitellaria unite
in the median field anterior to the preovarial group of testes and also pos-
terior to the postovarial group, while in Looss’ figure no such union is shown.
In Monticelli’s figure the oral sucker is of the same size as the acetabulum,
while in Looss’ figure the oral sucker is about one-third smaller than the
acetabulum. There are also noticeable differences in the relative distances
between the suckers in the two illustrations, but these may be due to varia-
tion in the amount of contraction or extension of the specimens drawn. In
view of the disparity as given above the writer feels that for the time being
Looss’ form should be regarded as a distinct species and proposes for it the
name Hapalotrema loossi (syn. Hapalotrema constrictum (Leared) of Looss,
1899, not H. constrictum (Leared) of Monticelli =H. mistroides (Monticelli).

Up to the present time the following genera have been included in the
family Spirorchidae: Spzrorchis MacCallum, 1918 (syn. Proparorchis Ward,
1921), Henotosoma Stunkard, 1922; Haematotrema Stunkard, 1922; Hapalo-
trema Looss, 1899; Hapalorhynchus Stunkard, 1922; Vasotrema Stunkard,
1926; Unicaecum Stunkard, 1926; Spirhapalum Ejsmont, 1927; Diarmoschis-
torchis Ejsmont, 1927; and Tremarhynchus Thapar, 1933. To this family are
now added three additional genera, Neospirorchis n. g., Amphiorchis n. g.,
and Learedius n. g. Whether all of these genera should be regarded as valid is
a matter of personal opinion. Ejsmont (1927) not only doubts the validity
of some species assigned to certain of the above genera but of some of the
genera as well. The present writer does not propose to go into the question of
the validity of the species at the present time, but so far as the genera are
concerned he does not regard Henotosoma Stunkard and Haematotrema
Stunkard as sufficiently different from the genus Spzrorchis to be considered
distinct, the types of the genera, Henotosoma haematobium Stunkard and
Haematotrema parvum Stunkard, becoming Spirorchis haematobium, (Stunk-
ard) and S. parvum (Stunkard), respectively. Tremarhynchus indicus, as
described by Thapar (1933), apparently does not differ sufficiently from
Hapalorhynchus gracilis Stunkard to warrant its separation as a distinct
genus, the differences being specific rather than generic; 7. zndicus Thapar,
therefore, becomes H. indicus (Thapar).

The genera of Spirorchidae fall into two more or less well defined groups,
one consisting of monostomatous forms and the other of distomatous forms.
Ejsmont, however, has shown that evidence of transition occurs in some of
the genera, a fact which makes it undesirable to regard the two groups as

140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

subfamilies. In the genus Diarmoschistorchis, which was proposed for a
monostomatous species, Spzrorchis blandingt MacCallum (1926), the testes
are arranged in two groups, one group preovarial and the other postovarial;
this condition simulates that occurring in species of Hapalotrema, which are
distomatous. The writer has had the opportunity of examining MacCallum’s
specimens of this species, and is inclined to regard it as an abberrant form
not closely related to the distomatous species. The testes, 12 or 13 of which
are preovarial and 3 postovarial, are arranged in a linear series as in the
monostomatous species and not irregularly as in the distomatous species;
the arrangement of the other organs is the same as in the genus Spzrorchis.
The relation of Dzarmoschistorchis blandingi, therefore, to such genera as
Haplorchis, Amphiorchis, and others of the distomatous group is question-
able. The other example of transition between the two groups, which Ejs-
mont pointed out, is Spzrhapalum polesianum; this is a distomatous form
which does show definite evidence of transition, especially as regards the egg
which is oval and contains a miracidium with eyespots as in the genus
Spirorchis. Aside from the egg, S. polesianum might easily be regarded as
congeneric with Hapalotrema mistroides, but in the latter species the egg is
spindle-shaped and the miracidium is not provided with eyespots. Much
might be said regarding the relationships of the genera and families of blood
flukes, but such a discussion is not within the scope of this paper.

KY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY SPIRORCHIDAE

1. Monostomatous forms.(0 0. 0 02. 2
Distomatous forms. &.. 85.2.) ee ee eee 5
2. Testes 2 or mong}... 0a i ea ee oh os ee 3
Testis single and spiraly. 0. ore ea a 4
3. slestes{preovanial hens. ce ey Ais wee ae ge oe eee Se: Sptrorchis
Testes both preovarial and postovarial............. Diarmoschistorchis

A Intestime consisting Olea sinclei cecum a5 4-4. See _.Unicaecum -
Intestine consisting of 2 branches uniting near equator of body and form-
ing a common cecum as in the Schistosomatidae..... Neospirorchis
5. estes numerous; preovariall.. 08... un eg eee Learedius
Testes numerous, or single, both preovarial and postovarial, or post-
ovarialjonly.. ig ogc a Be eee 6
6. Testis single, postovarial; esophageal diverticula present... . . Vasotrema
Testes 2 or more, preovarial and postovarial; esophageal diverticula ab-
SONGS. Si o8 «emia cx a eidelou hehe ele RES oe a
1s. PEStES MUMETOUS .:. sc. a Be aly «le a eee es 8
Testese2 in mumber..s 5.6. 6 gece kok dee pe aes ee 9
Sa Recoval: minacidiumwith eyespots. .9e0- ee sae Spirhapalum
Egg spindle-shaped; miracidium without eyespots......... Hapalotrema
9. Genital aperture dorsal, in front of anterior testis...... Hapalorhynchus

Genital aperture ventral, posterior to anterior testis....... Amphiorchis

MARCH 15, 1934 STEINER: NEW NEMATODE 141

LITERATURE CITED

EssmMont, L. Spirhapalum polesianum n. g., n. sp., trématode du sang d’Emys orbicu-
laris L. Ann. de Parasitol. humaine et comp., 5: 220-235, figs. 1-6. 1927.

LEARED, ARTHUR. Description of a new parasite found in the heart of the edible turtle.
Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc., Lond., n. s., 2: 168-170, figs. a-d. 1862.

Looss, A. Weitere Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Trematoden-Fauna Aegyptens, zugleich
Versuch einer naturlichen Gliederung des Genus Distomum Retzius. Zool. Jahrb.,
Jena, Abt. f. Syst., 12: 521—784, figs. a—b, pls. 24-32, figs. 1-90. 1899.

MacCatuium, G. A. Revue du genre Spirorchis MacCallum. Ann. de Parasitol. hu-
maine et comp., 4: 97-103, figs. 1-5. 1926.

Monticetui, F. 8. Diz un ematozoo della Thalassochelys caretta Linn. Internat.
Monatschr. f. Anat. u. Physiol., Leipz., 13: 141-172, pls. 7-8, figs. 1-22. 1896.

Stites, C. W., and Hassauu, ALBERT. Indezx-catalogue of medical and veterinary zool-
ogy. Subjects: Trematoda and trematode diseases. Hyg. Lab. Bull. 37, U. S. Pub-
lic Health and Marine Hosp. Serv., 401 pp. 1908.

STUNKARD, H. W. Notes on North American blood flukes. Amer. Mus. Novit. (12):
1-5. 1921.

—— Studies on North American blood flukes. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 48: 165—
221, pls. 2-13, figs. 1-61. 1923.

— A new blood fluke Unicaecum ruszkowskii, n. g., n. sp.; a contribution to the re-

lationship of the blood-infesting trematodes. Anat. Rec., 31: 317. 1925.

Sur ?Unicaecum ruszkowskii, trématode sangutcole des tortues d’eau douce de V’

Amérique du Nord. Ann. de Parasitol. humaine et comp., 5: 117-126, figs. 1-3.

1927.

THAPAR, GOBIND SINGH. A new blood fluke from an Indian tortoise, Trionyx gangetica.
Jour. Helminth. 11(8): 163-168, figs. 1-3. 1938.

ZOOLOGY .—A new species of the nematode genus Aphelenchoides
living in sugar cane G. STEINER, Bureau of Plant Industry.

A phelenchordes heterophallus n. sp. was observed in a piece of sugar
cane stalk originating in Jamaica.” The rind of the cane was a normal
green color; the axial portion, however, had a blackish discoloration
probably caused by a fungus. It was in this latter portion that a pure
culture of the new nematode species was found. A. heterophallus is a
well characterized form, most closely related to certain species found
in the mines of and associated with bark beetles of Europe and the
Pacific Northwest. The present case may also involve some associa-
tion with an insect (most probably a carrier relationship), although
the piece of sugar cane stalk exhibited neither mines nor other traces
of insects. The complete absence of saprophytic nematode species and
of signs of decay seems to exclude the possibility that the infestation
was picked up by contact with soil.

The thin cuticle is very obscurely annulated. The anteriorly convex head
is well set off. Male and female tails differ in shape, that of the latter being
conical and elongated (fig. 1B), and that of the former having a broad,
obtuse base with a distinctly set off point (fig. 1D and E). The length of the
female tail, however, is quite variable. The head is supported by a cuticu-

1 Received December 19, 1933.
* Intercepted at the Port of Philadelphia, Pa. by inspector A. B. Wells of the Bureau
of Plant Quarantine.

142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

Fig. 1.—Aphelenchoides heterophallus n. sp. X about 1250.
lat vnc, lateral incisure; cut, cuticularized framework.

ut, uterus; vlv, vulva; rect, rectum. C, Anterior portion of body; sty, buccal stylet; oe

A, Top view of head:
B, Posterior portion of female;
blb, esophageal bulb; p. ex, excretary pore. D, Ventral view of tail of male; sp, spicula;
min cop ppl, small copulatory papilla; maj cop ppl, large copulatory papilla; trm, ter-
minal processus. E, Lateral view of tail of male.

MARCH 15, 1934 STEINER: NEW NEMATODE 143

larized framework which is star-shaped in front view (fig. 1A). The ar-
rangement of the sense organs is that typical for the genus. In a front view
of the head a rather remarkable lateral and medial incisure is seen on the
periphery. The delicate buccal stylet has only a slight indication of basal
knobs. The very large esophageal bulb, iocated about three spear-lengths
behind the anterior end, is provided with small valvulae and rather reduced
muscles. The rectum is about as long as the anal body diameter. Males and
females are equally numerous.

The most characteristic feature of the female is the prominent vulva lo-
cated near the anus (fig. 1B), the distance between vulva and anus being
only about half the length of the tail. The single ovary is not reflexed. There
is no posterior uterine branch.

In the male the terminal processus also varies somewhat in size and shape.
The spicula are juxtaposed (fig. 1E) and of quite characteristic shape, though
they still retain the outlines of typical A phelenchoides spicula. There are two
small and three large pairs of copulatory papillae (fig. 1D and E). The
smaller ones are close to the ventromedial line, one pair being about level
with the proximal third of the spicula in front of the anus, the other in about
the middle of the tail. Of the three larger pairs the first is located a little
caudad of the middle of the spicula, the second ventro, the third dorso-
submedial, close to the base of the obtuse portion of the tail.

med. nrv.
bulb ring
70.
1.0 5.2 Gal 02) 6 Ga 7 p
ee OT huey a7 2.2 a
74,
pe 1.3 Gs foal M a cas roma lk
ai (4 2.2 2.92 2.9 iGReo G
DIAGNOSIS

A phelenchoides with delicate, minutely knobbed stylet. Vulva prominent;
distance from vulva to anus about one-half the length of tail or less. Male
tail with broad, obtuse basal portion ending with a distinctly set-off finger-
like processus. Male papillae as follows: A pair of small papillae subventral
about level with the proximal third of the spicula; a similar pair also sub-
ventral in the middle of the tail; a pair of larger ones, ventrosubmedial,
slightly caudad of the middle of the spicula; a second and third larger pair
ventrosubmedial and dorsosubmedial respectively, at the base of the obtuse
portion of the tail. Spicula juxtaposed, aphelenchoid.

Type host: Sugar cane.

Type locality: Jamaica.

144. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY
255TH MEETING

The 255th meeting of the Academy was held in the Auditorium of the
National Museum at 4:45 p.m., on Thursday, November 16, 1933. About
150 persons were present. President Griaes introduced the Reverend Dr.
G. LeMAITRE, professor of physics in the University of Louvain and lecturer
at the Catholic University of America, who delivered an address on The
expanding universe.

250TH MEETING

The 256th meeting of the AcApEmy was held in the Assembly Hall of the
Cosmos Club on Thursday, January 18, 1934. Seventy five persons were
present. Vice President H. L. Curtis presided and introduced RoBERT
F. Griaes, Professor of Botany, George Washington University, retiring
President of the AcapEmMy, who delivered an address on The problems of
Arctic vegetation.

The 36th Annual Meeting of the AcApEMy was called to order by Presi-
dent R. F. Griaas, at 9:20 p.m., immediately after the 256th regular meet- -
ing. Thirty-six members were present. The minutes of the 35th Annual
Meeting were read by the Recording Secretary and approved.

Annual reports of officers were presented as follows:

The corresponding secretary reported that on January 1, 1934, the mem-
bership consisted of 16 honorary members, 3 patrons, and 521 members, one
of whom was a life member. The total membership was 540 members, of
whom 378 reside in or near the District of Columbia, 136 in other parts of
the continental United States, and 26 in foreign countries.

The members of the AcapEmy stood while the Secretary announced the
following deaths:

Otis F. BLACK F. P. GoRHAM
ARTHUR P. Davis W.H. Houtmes
HARLAN W. Fisk ORMOND STONE

The Recording Secretary summarized the five public meetings of the
ACADEMY, one of which was a joint meeting with the Medical Society.

The Treasurer reported that the receipts of the AcapEMy during the past
year amounted to $4,983.81 including the return of investment of $50 and
interest on investments of $993.06. The disbursements amounted to
$5,195.30 including bills for the year 1932 totaling $413.79. The bank balance
at the end of the year was $1,365.35. The investments of the ACADEMY com-
prise $6,337.50 in stocks, $6,758.87 in bonds, and $8,000.00 in real estate
notes making a total of $21,096.37 computed on the basis of cost to the
ACADEMY.

Doctor H. H. Haran, chairman of the board of auditors, reported exam-_
ination and approval of the books and properties in the hands of the Treas-
urer, after which both reports were accepted.

The report of the Board of Editors was presented by the Senior Editor,
Huau L. Drypsn. Volume 23 consisted of 77 original papers covering 588
pages and illustrated by 30 halftones and 78 line cuts. The total cost per
printed page exclusive of reprints and of the cost of the new’s service was

MARCH 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 145

$5.50 as compared with $6.62 for 1932. The cost to the AcapEmy of supply-
ing 50 free reprints of each article was $0.57 per page. A marked increase
in the space devoted to scientific notes and news was made possible by a
contract with Science Service operative during the year.

Doctor W. B. Bell, chairman of the board of tellers, reported the election
of the following officers: President, L. B. TucKERMAN; non-resident Vice-
Presidents, E. C. ANDREWS and E. T. WuHeERRyY; Corresponding Secretary,
PauLt E. Howe; Recording Secretary, CHARLES THoMm; Treasurer, H. G.
Avers; Managers for the term of three years ending January, 1937, W. M.
Corss and J. E. Grar.

The Corresponding Secretary read the list of members nominated for
Vice-Presidents by the affiliated societies. Upon motion the entire list was
unanimously elected as follows:

Philosophical Society, H. L. DRYDEN
Anthropological Society, MatrHrew W. STIRLING
Biological Society, Cuas. E. CHAMBLISS
Chemical Society, D. BREESE JONES
Entomological Society, HaRotD Morrison
Geographic Society, FREDERICK V. COoVILLE
Geological Society, C. N. FENNER

Medical Society, H. C. MAcaTEE

Historical Society, A. C. ALLEN

Botanical Society, CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT
Archaeological Society, WALTER HouGH
Society of Foresters, SAMUEL B. DETWILER
Washington Engineers, Paut C. WHITNEY
Electrical Engineers, E. C. CRITTENDEN
Mechanical Engineers, H. L. WHITTEMORE
Helminthological Society, G. STEINER
Bacteriological Society, N. R. Smiru
Military Engineers, C. H. BrrpsEYE

Radio Engineers, H. G. Dorsry

President Griggs appointed Past President L. H. Apams to escort Presi-
dent TucKERMAN to the chair. After a short address, he declared the meeting
adjourned.

CHARLES THOM, Recording Secretary.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY
246TH MEETING

The 246th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club on January 3, 1933. President CHARLES Brooks presided; attendance
150.

Brief notes and reviews: A. S. Hircucock of the International Committee
on Botanical Nomenclature reported that the new rules were practically
finished in English and that translation into other languages would prob-
ably be completed by the end of 1933.

Program: W. A. ArcHER: Botanical explorations in Choco Province,
Colombia.—Choco Province is about twice the size of New Hampshire with a
low central area surrounded on all sides by mountains. The annual rainfall
is approximately 457 inches. The population of some 60,000 consists of a few

146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

scattered white people and the balance Indians of Choco stock and negroes.
About 500 plant specimens were secured, including a large number of new
species. Of the scant 40 economic plants obtained, several are new, indicat-
ing the need for further studies of the flora of the region.

247TH MEETING

The 247th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,
February 7, 1933. President CHARLES Brooks presided; attendance 55.
FLORENCE E. Meier and Lewis B. Lockwoop were elected to membership.

Brief notes and reviews: W. A. WHITNEY reviewed a new Dictionary of
Colors by Maerz and Paul, including more than 7,000 colors, which may be
freely exposed to the light. Davip GrirFiTus exhibited a plant of the genus
Lachenalia with decorative leaves and flowers. M. B. WaiTE reported on two ~
interesting conifers, Torrya taxzfolia and Juniperus barbadensis, the latter
erowing at Wrightsville, North Carolina, 30 miles north of its previous
northernmost station. H. R. Fuutron exhibited a branch of satsuma orange
bearing fruiting bodies of Schizophyllum commune.

Program: CHARLES THOM: The arsenic fungi.—The history and signifi-
cance of the group of fungi capable of attacking insoluble arsenical sub-
stances and producing gases with a garlic odor and more or less toxicity,
were developed along the lines established by Thom and Raper in Science
76 (1980) : 548-550, December 9, 1932. The ubiquity of these species in rela-
tion to the general use of arsenic in excess in combatting insects was stressed
as involving injury to certain crops and health hazards worthy of serious
consideration. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messers WHITNEY, WAITE, RAPER, THONE, and ROSE.

G. M. Darrow: Short daily light periods the cause of the rest period and
regional adaptation in strawberries.—This was a report of experiments and
observations covering the past ten years on the effect on varieties and species
of short days during summer, and long days during winter, the relation of
shortening days of fall to the rest period, the intensity of the rest period of
different varieties, breaking the rest period by exposure to low temperatures
and. by increasing the daily light period, and the significance of this in
breeding. (Author’s abstract.)

248TH MEETING

The 248th meeting was held at Meridian Mansions Hotel, March 7, 1933.
President CHARLES Brooks presided, attendance 89.

Dinner was served at 7:00 o’clock. Davip GRIFFITHS supplied extensive
table decorations including Narcissus, Iris, and Lachenalia. During the
meeting he pointed out the different varieties and explained a new method
of forcing which had enabled him to secure the blooms within three to four
weeks. Dean H. Rosh outlined briefly various methods of preparing frozen
fruits, of which the strawberries served at the dinner were an example.

Program: J. R. SWALLEN: Yucatan as seen by a botanist.

249TH MEETING

The 249th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,
April 4, 1933, President CHARLES Brooks presiding; attendance 109.
JaMES M. PickENs was elected to membership.

Brief notes and reviews: F. THONE exhibited four recently published
botanical works, Plant Sociology, Braun-Blanquet; Plant Ecology, Weaver

MARCH 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 147

and Clements; Natural Gardens of North Carolina, Wells; and The Plant
World in Florida, Nehrling. C. A. Lupwic showed graphs of the distribution
of cowpea and hairy vetch seeds by weight classes. R. KENT BEATTIE called
attention to the first two numbers of Phytopathological Classics, the first
Attempt at a dissertation on the diseases of plants by Fabricus, published in
1774 and translated by Mrs. K. Ravn; and the second, Observations on the
rust of grains by Fontana, published in 1767. H. B. Humpurey discussed
the precipitation record for Washington, D. C., from January 1930 through
ie 1933, the record disclosing a net accumulated deficiency Ole ane
inches

Program: D. H. Rose: Bruising and freezing injury of apples in storage and
transit.—Published in mimeographed form by the Bureau of Plant Industry.

CHARLES DRECHSLER: The capturing of nematodes by fungi.—Published
in substance. TH1Is JOURNAL 23: 1388-141. 1933.

250TH MEETING

The 250th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,
May 2, 1933, President CHARLES BRooks presiding; attendance 44.

Brief notes and reviews: H. B. HumMpuHReEy exhibited 9 species of endemic
violets. C. A. Lupwic exhibited a specimen of quack grass (Agropyron
repens) which had grown through the root of a sumac bush. A. 8. HircHcock
requested information on the location of types of plants to be used in a
central index of types which would be available to botanists.

Program: J. H. Martin: Grohoma and other fake grains: therr origin and
explottation.—Grain crops are a favorite medium for exploiters. Poulard,
Polish, Fulcaster and other wheats, hulless varieties of oats and barley, proso
and Pearl millets have been exploited frequently. Grohoma, a new grain
sorghum, has been exploited by several firms and individuals since 1929. It
was claimed to have been originated by grafting a kafir bud on a stalk of
sorgo. Extravagant and fraudulent claims were made for Grohoma in ex-
tensive seed selling campaigns. Efforts of the Department of Agriculture and
State officials resulted in suppressing much of the fraudulent advertising and
in greatly curtailing the sale of Grohoma seed at high prices. The fake graft-
ing process on sorghums was detected. Exploiters attempted to retaliate
against Department and State officials for exposing the fraud by using
political and legal methods but were unsuccessful. (A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messers RaBER, SWINGLE, HitrcHcock, and BRIERLY.

C. O. ErRLANSOoN: A resumé of potato investigations in Mexico and South
America.—The Bureau of Plant Industry sent out expeditions in 1931 and
1932 to obtain new varieties of potatoes for use in breeding new types resist-
ant to the various virus diseases of this crop. Potato relatives, numbering
about 150 species, are distributed from New Mexico and Arizona south
through the mountains of Mexico, Central and South America. About 600
collections of tubers and seeds of potatoes and potato relatives were obtained
from the two expeditions. This material is now being grown at several ex-
periment stations where studies will be made as to the resistance to degener-
ation diseases of any promising types which develop.

Discussed by C. A. Lupwice.

2518ST MEETING

The 251st regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club October 3, 1933. President CHARLES Brooks presided.

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

Program: J. B. KincEr: Long-time temperature trends: Are the old fashioned
winters gone?—Attention was called to the remarkable sequences of years
with supra-normal temperature, especially during the fall and winter seasons,
which have occurred over eastern North America since 1876. Weather re-
cords for Washington, D. C., show that 18 of the last 21 winters have been
warmer than normal, and that all of the last 13 have been mild; only 3 of the
25 fall seasons since 1907 have had sub-normal temperatures while 15 of
the last 17 months, including September 1933, had plus departures from
normal. The abnormally warm weather experienced in general for a long
time past does not mean, however, that cold periods have been entirely
absent. The records indicate that occasional brief spells of abnormally cool,
or extremely cold, weather are characteristic of prevailingly high tempera-
ture trends. The cold winter of 1917-18 coming at a time when the long-
time trend was running comparatively high was cited as an example, and
also the fact that the lowest official temperature on record for the United
States—66 degrees below zero—occurred in the Yellowstone National Park
in February, 1933.

Discussed by W. A. Taytor and M. B. Waite.

H. H. McKinney: Time of sexual reproduction in wheat as influenced by ©
temperature and light—Shoot development and flower differentiation in the
wheat plant are affected by temperature and length of day. Winter wheats
are low-temperature short-day plants during leaf and tiller formation, and
high-temperature, long-day plants during elongation and heading. The low
temperature requirements for earliness in winter wheat can be met during
the early stages of germination by exposing partly germinated seeds at 35-—
38° F. for 65 days. The treatment called iarovization by the Russians, and
vernalization by the English, may be carried out in either darkness or light.
By its means heading of wheat may be significantly advanced.

252ND MEETING

The 252nd regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club on November 7, 1933. President CHarRLES Brooks presided.

Program: W. W. Dinuu: The lack of chlorosis in some sterility diseases of
grasses.—The effect upon certain grasses of a systemic infection produced
by certain parasites recognized in the genera, Myriogenospora, Dothichloé
and Balansia is to produce a partial or complete sterility, unaccompanied,
however, by any chlorotic condition, since diseased plants and organs are of
a normal green color. Dependent upon the particular combination of host
and parasite there may be a dwarfing or an invigoration of the diseased
plant. The examples which were chosen to illustrate these conditions were
as follows: Andropogon virginicus infected by Myriogenospora; Arvstida
glauca, Sacciolepis striata, Panicum clandestinum, and Sporobolus bertero-
anus infected by Dothichloé; Cenchrus echinatus infected by Balansza clavi-
ceps; = Danthonia spp. infected by Balansia Hypoxylon. (Author’s ab-
stract.

J. R. Maeness: The functioning of fruit trees as influenced by moisture
supply.—When a portion of the root zone of apple trees reaches the wilting
percentage, the daily period of stomatal opening becomes reduced. Under
extreme water shortage, stomata fail to open at any time during the day.
Rate of fruit growth is closely correlated with the moisture condition and
stomatal behavior. When sufficient moisture becomes available following
drought conditions, leaf function and fruit growth are apparently resumed

MARCH 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 149

at a normal rate. Under conditions of water shortage, the starch-sugar ratio
in bark and wood is modified, tissue from trees under moisture shortage con-
taining more sugar and less starch than under ample moisture supply. Total
carbohydrates manufactured as well as total starch in the tree are reduced
by water shortage. Fruit bud formation apparently is increased by the water
shortage associated with high soluble carbohydrate content in the tissues.
(A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by L. E. Yocum and M. B. WalrTs.

253RD MEETING

The 253rd regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club, December 5, 1933, President CHARLES Brooks presiding.

Program: Address of retiring President CHARLES Brooks: After-harvest
botany—Some botanical aspects of perishable food products.—This address will
be published in The Scientific Monthly.

33RD ANNUAL MEETING

The 33rd annual business meeting and election of officers was held follow-
ing the adjournment of the 253rd meeting.

The recording secretary reported 8 regular meetings and one outing dur-
ing the year. The annual dinner was held in March at Meridian Mansions.
The average attendance at the regular meetings was 87. Thirteen new mem-
bers were elected, two absent members reinstated, two active members
placed on the non-resident list, and four members lost by resignation. Dr.
J. A. Faris died September 24th. The active membership is 213. Three mem-
bers, W. H. Evans, V. K. Curstnut, and W. W. Eaaueston, who retired
during the year, were elected to honorary membership.

The following officers were elected: President, NATHAN R. SmituH; Vzce-
President, W. W. DIEHL; Recording Secretary, FREEMAN WEIsS; Correspond-
ing Secretary, ANNA E. JENKINS; Treasurer, NELLIE W. NANCE; nominated
as Vice-President of the Washington Academy of Sciences, CHARLOTTE EL-
LIOTT.

CHARLOTTE ExuiottT, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
Notes

CWA aids American archaeologyx—CWA archaeological projects in five
states, under the guidance of the Smithsonian Institution, are yielding new
data in American archaeology. An old Indian burying ground explored in
Kern County, Calif., has revealed grave posts of extraordinary importance.
The wooden posts may enable archaeologists to establish some definite dates,
thus turning prehistory into dated history in California. The posts are of
cedar or juniper wood. Old as they are, annual growth rings in the wood are
well preserved. It is hoped that by comparing the rings with the long calen-
dar of annual rings shown in California redwood trees, the years when the
grave posts were cut and made can be determined. The California Indians
whose age may be learned were buried with few possessions. The excavators
have found 150 burials, wrapped in cloth and matting, in the graveyard.

CWA workers near Murphy, N. C., have excavated an Indian mound and

150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

identified the site as a Cherokee village visited by the Spanish explorer De
Soto. It is called ‘“‘Guasili” in the Spanish records. Another Indian village
which De Soto may have visited is being explored at Bradenton, Fla. Euro-
pean glass beads suggest that the Spanish gold-seeking expedition tarried
there, and exchanged beads for information, hospitality, or supplies.

A large mound being explored by another CWA group in Macon, Ga., is
proving far more extensive than had been expected. Near the top, the dig-
ging has disclosed evidence of European contact. More deeply buried are
phases of aboriginal cultures, some belonging to historically known tribes.
From pottery fragments, the archaeologists see indications that these Geor-
gia Indians had contacts with tribes farther north.

In Tennessee, the CWA workers are still seeking to identify Indians who
built the numerous mounds in Shiloh National Military Park.

Photographic map of Indian lands.—A huge airplane photographic map,
40 by 24 feet, of the Navajo and Zuni Indian lands in New Mexico, Arizona,
and Utah has been contracted for by the Department of the Interior. It is to
be used as a basis for the better regulation of grazing practises, which have
already gone to severely damaging excess in many small areas and a few
large ones.

Airplanes making the photographs will fly at an altitude of over 20,000
feet, taking more than 4,500 individual photographs with a special four-lens
camera. The separate pictures will be fitted together into a single mosaic
map. The total cost of the work will be about $77,000; but if the work were
done by ground parties it would cost more than $500,000.

A new deal for ducks.—Secretary of Agriculture WALLACE, with the ap-
proval of President RoosEVELT, has appointed a committee to outline a
course of action under a proposed plan for enlarging areas on which game
birds can be fed and bred. The first projects will be for the restoration of the
feeding grounds of ducks and other migratory game birds, including the re-
flooding of unprofitable ‘‘reclaimed”’ swamp and lake lands, the renewal of
natural food supplies, cover and nesting sites, and the protection of the birds
from natural enemies and illegal hunters. Correlated with the lowland proj-
ects is a program of reversion to brush and timberland of upland areas in the
submarginal agricultural class, giving cover for non-migratory upland game
birds and mammals. These can be handled at least partly on a “game farm-
ing’’ basis by the landowners. The cost of the program, it is proposed, shall
be met in part through a low Federal hunting license fee, together with a
small tax on hunting ammunition.

Fish cultural survey of Puerto Rico.—On January 25 Dr. 8. F. HILDEBRAND
senior ichthyologist of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, sailed from Baltimore
@ Puerto Rico to conduct a survey of the fish cultural possibilities of the
island.

On the occasion of his visit to the United States Mr. R. MENENDEZ
Ramos, Commissioner of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce of
Puerto Rico, requested the assistance of the Bureau of Fisheries in assessing
the possibilities of developing trout culture in the high mountain streams
and in several reservoirs of the northern watershed on the island, as well as
the possibility of propagating and stocking the lower reaches of the streams
with other food and game fishes. The Puerto Rican Government is cooperat-
ing in the survey by defraying the field expense of the investigation, and the
Bureau is furnishing the services of the investigator.

MARCH 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 151

News BRIEFS

The third Arthur Lecture was given by Dr. CHARLES G. ABBOT, secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution, in the hall of the U. S. National Museum
on the evening of February 26. The subject was, How the sun warms the earth.

The American Academy of Tropical Medicine was founded at a conference
held at the National Academy of Sciences on February 5, under the auspices
of the National Research Council. Dr. THEOBALD SMITH was elected its first
president.

The U. S. Public Health Service has received advices from Manchukuo
indicating that the United Anti-Plague Commission has been re-established
as a permanent organization.

Greater refractivity of the lower layers of the atmosphere during periods
of profound calm may be due to the ‘‘settling to the bottom” of the heavier
isotopes of oxygen, sorted out by differential gravitation, L. W. TILTon of
the National Bureau of Standards, has suggested in a communication to
Nature.

JAMES A. Forp of the Smithsonian Institution has discovered a mound-
builder dwelling site near Marksville, La., with clearly marked post-holes
giving dimensions and general architectural plan. Though far from the
traditional Hopewell country, it seems to belong to the Hopewell culture

type.

Public attention was directed to a widespread incidence of measles by the
U. S. Public Health Service, on February 7. Measles outbreaks seem to
run in cycles of about two and one-half years, it was pointed out; and this
is apparently the peak of a cycle.

Radio talks under the auspices of Science Service were broadcast over the
network of the Columbia Broadcasting System, by F. A. S1icox, chief
forester, U. S. Forestry Service, on January 31, and by Dr. VINCENT DU
VIGNEAUD of the faculty of the George Washington University School of
Medicine, on February 7.

A number of mallard ducks have been donated to the Office of National
Parks, Buildings and Reservations of the U. 8. Department of the Interior
and placed on Roache’s Run on the Mount Vernon Boulevard. It is believed
that this will form the nucleus of a bird sanctuary at this point which will
undoubtedly attract many Washington visitors. A report made February 9
says that the original 27 pairs planted at this point had attracted a consider-
able number of other ducks. The total number is now in excess of 250.

The Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture each have appointed two
men within their Departments as members of a committee of five, the fifth
member being the chairman, Mr. JAcoB BAKER, to assemble and recommend
lands to be acquired in connection with a program for the purchase of sub-
marginal lands with $25,000,000 made available through the Public Works
Administration. :

On January 15 the five district officers in the United States having charge
of State Park Emergency Conservation Work met in the office of assistant
director Conrap L. WrrTH of the Office of Public Parks, Buildings and Res-
ervations, U. S. Department of the Interior, for the purpose of discussing

152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

general organization plans and work to be carried on in State Park Emer-
gency Conservation work camps during the third enrollment period. This
period will start next April 1 and extend to March 31, 1935, provided Con-
gress appropriates the necessary funds.

Dr. G. W. Warr, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie
Institution of Washington, broadcast a talk entitled Electricity in the at-
mosphere on January 30 from Station WMAL under the auspices of the
Greater National Capital Committee of the Washington Board of Trade.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Capt. ALBERT W. Stevens, U.S. Army Air Corps, has been awarded the
Franklin L. Burr prize of the National Geographic Society in recognition of
his work on aerial photography, particularly his photograph from 20,000
feet altitude of the moon’s shadow during the total solar eclipse of 1932.

Pau G. Repineron, chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey and F. C.
LINCOLN, who is in charge of the Bureau’s bird-banding work, attended
the joint meeting of the Northeastern Bird-Banding Association and the
Federation of the Bird Clubs of New England, held in Boston, on January
19.

O. J. Murin, Biological Survey field naturalist stationed at the Elk
Refuge in Wyoming, is in Washington conferring with Bureau officials on
matters pertaining to his studies of the elk of Jackson Hole, Wyo.

Assistant Director Haroutp C. BRYANT, assistant to the superintendent
of Yellowstone National Park JosePH JoFrFE, and Mr. Davip E. MApseEn of
the Wild Life Division, represented the Office of National Parks, Buildings,
and Reservations, U. 8. Department of the Interior, at the American Game
Conference held in New York City the latter part of January. Former Direc-
tor Horacr M. ALBRIGHT also attended. In connection with this conference
a special meeting of the Commission on the Conservation of the Elk of Jack-
son Hole was held, at which Mr. Jorrr was appointed secretary to succeed
Mr. Ovip BUTLER.

W. E. Emuey, chief of the organic and fibrous materials division of the
National Bureau of Standards, addressed the Board of Directors of the
General Federation of Women’s Clubs in Washington on January 11, in
regard to consumers’ specifications for hosiery. Mr. EMuEy also addressed
the annual meeting of the National Association of Dyers and Cleaners in
Chicago on January 17 and presided at a meeting of the Research Committee
of the U.S. Institute for Textile Research in Washington on January 20.

W. D. AppxEt, chief of the textile section of the National Bureau of Stand-
ards, attended a meeting of the shrinkage committee of the American
Standards Association in New York on February 1. This committee is con-
sidering the adoption of an American standard for measuring the shrinkage
of fabrics.

On January 2, Dr. FreppRick A. Davipson, associate aquatic biologist
of the Bureau of Fisheries, was appointed by the commissioner to serve as
acting director of the Fisheries Biological Laboratory at Seattle, Wash.,
relieving JosEPH A. CraiGc, who has been serving as director since October
1193S:

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY
| OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Witmort H. BrapLey JoHN A. STEVENSON F. G. BRICKWEDDE
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BURSAU OF STANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

H. T. WENSEL Haroutp Morrison
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTY BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCISTY

E. A. GoLDMAN W. W. Rosey
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

AGNES CHASE J. R. SWANTON

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VoL. 24 ApriL 15, 1934 No. 4

BOTANY.—The problem of arctic vegetation.. RosBrrt F. Griaes,
George Washington University.

One of the most definite of the side lines which I expected to
carry through when the National Geographic Society sent me to
Katmai was a study of the vegetation of the region—that is of the
normal vegetation outside the area devastated by the great eruption
of 1912.

But when I tried to classify the vegetation on the ground as it
would be done by an ecologist further south, I became confused and
had to give it up. It was easy to segregate the plant societies in a few
special situations like the strand and the dunes. But these were all
habitats of minor importance, and after they had been considered
the main body of the vegetation remained hopelessly confused. Five
times upon returning to the States, I renewed the determination to
master the problem on the next trip. And every time until the last
I gave it up as beyond my power of generalization.

This may sound strange in view of the fact that many others be-
fore me have studied arctic vegetation and have published volumi-
nous records of what they observed. I shall return to a brief consider-
ation of the literature, but at this point I may say merely that earlier
students had not, to my mind, solved the problem of dealing with
arctic vegetation. All of them have attempted to treat arctic ecol-
ogy from analogy with the ecology of temperate regions. But high
latitudes are different from low latitudes and analogies break down.
I felt that a new point of view was essential to effective treatment of
the problem and until this was gained nothing could be accomplished.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN ARCTIC VEGETATION AND ARCTIC FLORA

I should, perhaps, explain the distinction drawn between arctic
vegetation and the arctic flora. The student of a flora, a taxonomist,

1 Address of the retiring president of the Washington Academy of Sciences delivered
January 18,1934. Received February 6, 1934.

153

154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

is concerned primarily with the species which occur in a region, with
the species as separate entities, while the student of vegetation, an
ecologist, is concerned primarily with the relations of these species to
each other and to their physical environment, as they grow together
in the field. The taxonomist stands to the ecologist somewhat as does
the nurseryman to the landscape gardener. The work of the taxon-
omist and the nurseryman must underlie any development of ecol-
ogy or of landscaping. But as successful planting requires a great
deal more than a knowledge of the nurseryman’s materials, so an
ecological treatment demands very much more than a knowledge of
the flora of the area studied.

In the temperate zone vegetation is rather clearly segregated into
more or less well-marked associations, like beech forests, oak forests,
pine woods, swamps, and bogs. Each of these associations has a
somewhat definite composition, and mention of a few plants at once
conveys to one familiar with the country a picture of the whole as-
sociation. Thus when you enter a pine woods hereabout you expect
to find spotted pipsissewa and dewberries, but not maidenhair fern,
jack-in-the-pulpit or Dutchman’s breeches. Study of vegetation
types has convinced us, moreover, that these associations are not
accidental, but that they arise from causes to be found in the special
requirements of the species present interacting with the different con-
ditions of the various habitats.

When one goes to the arctic he naturally expects to find similar
plant associations, but instead he meets a bewildering mixture of
plants of all sorts jumbled together in seeming defiance of the prin-
ciples of plant association learned in low latitudes. The criteria by
which plant associations are distinguished further south break down
in the arctic. In few of the different habitats can characteristic species
be named, and most habitats are invaded with some measure of suc-
cess by almost every species of the flora. The fact that two species
happen to be associated in a given situation means nothing as to
their habitat preferences—to the utter bewilderment of a botanist
accustomed to finding one set of plants in oak forests and another
in beech woods. Lacking plant associations in the sense of moré or
less organic societies with definite constituent species, the vegetation
appears an indescriminate mixture of the species of the flora as though
the plant cover of any situation depended merely on the seeds that
happened by chance to fall thereon instead of on the fitness of the
species represented for that particular habitat.

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 155

INDIFFERENCE OF ARCTIC PLANTS TO ALTITUDE

A special case of this sort of thing is the indifference of arctic plants
to altitude. This has been noted by many observers and in many
lands. Whereas in the south we find definite zones of vegetation with
the alpine types limited to the highest mountains, nothing of the sort
occurs in the arctic. There the sea cliffs and the mountain summits
have practically the same flora.

A curious instance of the indifference of plants to altitude in the
north, though in this case in a boreal rather than in an arctic country,
has recently been brought to light in Newfoundland. There Fernald
(1933) has found a large number of high-arctic species reaching their
southern limits not on the mountains but on the coast near sea-level.
Conversely a number of southern species such as Schizaea pusilla of
the New Jersey pine barrens, and the orchids, Habenaria psychodes,
Calopogon puchellus, Cypripedium acaule, and Pogonia ophioglossoides-
together with Rynchospora alba, Bartonia, Utricularia clandestina,
X yris and others, which reach their northern limits in Newfoundland,
are to be found not on the lowlands but only on the high tablelands
of the interior. The high-arctic element confined to the coast makes
an especially impressive showing since the arctic species already col-
lected comprise 494 per cent of the total flora of the Arctic Archi-
pelago and Fernald thinks that their number would be considerably
increased by further collecting.

But arctic vegetation like the arctic flora is similar all around the
pole, and it has been described by many observers, especially in
Scandinavia. It is instructive to observe the devices used by these
writers in the attempt to characterize an indiscriminate vegetation.
They fall in general into two categories. Either the accounts are ab-
stractions too far removed from the actual plant cover, or they are
merely particularized descriptions of individual patches of plants
whose variations are neither in any way correlated with physical fac-
tors, nor of general application to other areas.

PRESENT PRACTICES IN DEALING WITH ARCTIC VEGETATION

The Upsala school, which adopts the second course, sets up more
than one hundred “‘associations”’ to describe a vegetation where there
are less than that number of common species. Thus Fries (1913) in
northern Sweden lists fifteen lichen-rich heaths as follows: (1) Lichen-
rich Empetrum association, (2) lichen-rich Phyllodoce association,
(3) lichen-rich Azalea association, (4) lichen-rich Andromeda tetra-
gona association, (5) lichen-rich Andromeda hypnoides association,

156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

(6) lichen-rich Salix herbacea association, (7) liverwort-Salix herb-
acea association, (8) lichen-rich Dryas octopetala association, (9) lich-
en-rich Diapensia lapponica association, (10) lichen-rich Juncus tri-
jidus association, (11) lichen-rich Carex rigida-C. lagopina association,
(12) lichen-rich Hierochloé alpina association, (13) lichen-rich Cala-
magrostis lapponica association, (14) lichen-rich Festuca ovina as-
sociation, (15) lichen-rich Forb association. Further it is to be ob-
served that a number of the character plants given above appear also
as character plants in several other associations, e.g. Empetrum
nigrum appears in the moss-rich Empetrum heath, the Empetrum-
rich lichen-birch forest, and the Empetrum high-moor. Moreover the
subordinate plants in each of these associations include to a large ex-
tent the character plants of adjoining associations. Empetrum nigrum
also appears in the plant lists of the following eighteen associations:
(1) Heath-like lichen-birch woods, (2) Myrtillus nigra-rich lichen
birch woods, (8) Azalea-rich lichen-birch woods, (4) Carex rigida
lichen birch woods, (5) Polytrichum-rich lichen-birch woods, (6)
lichen-rich Betula nana bushland, (7) lichen-rich Diapensia lapponica
association, (8) lichen-rich Juncus trifidus association, (9) lichen-rich
Calamagrostis lapponica association, (10) moss birch woods, (11)
mossy Betula nana bushland, (12) mossy Andromeda tetragona as-
sociation, (13) mossy Calamagrostis lapponica association, (14) Ger-
anium silvaticum-rich meadow birch woods, (15) Cirsium heterophyl-
lum-rich meadow-birch woods, (16) Betula nana high-moor, (17) Salix
glauca high-moor, (18) Rubus chamaemorus high-moor. While it is
true that E’mpetrum is probably the most nearly ubiquitous of all
the species in the lower arctic regions, yet most of the other common
species would make the same sort of a showing.

I must beg the reader’s pardon for giving such a jumbled and re-
petitious list of names. But if left out, the real situation would be
grasped only by those who took the trouble to look up the original.
Nothing would have been easier for me at Katmai than to have
given a similar list of a hundred or more “‘associations.’’ But however
useful such an analysis might be to the writer himself it did not seem
to me that it would be very helpful to the ecological fraternity in
general.

The difficulty of the problem may be readily visualized from a
perusal of Ostenfeld’s account of the botany of the Faerdes (1908),
which, though lying at a comparatively low latitude, are essentially
arctic in character. He works out a clear and logical classification,
but he tells us (page 920) that it is ““more abstract than in most other

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 157

countries and it will be necessary again and again to indicate the
gradual transition from one association to another.” These transitions
(page 935) “‘recur with almost tiresome frequency and an accurately
defined survey is almost impossible.’ (Page 920) ‘‘It will be under-
stood that differences so slightly defined are difficult to maintain,”
and again (page 981) ‘“‘The mosses as well as the higher plants convey
the same impression, they are a very mixed and heterogeneous com-

pany.”
VARIABLE HABITAT PREFERENCES OF ARCTIC PLANTS

From the literature also another aspect of the puzzle appeared;
not only are the habitat preferences of arctic plants obscure but such
as they are they vary from region to region, thus breaking down the
few ideas on the subject I had been able to deduce at Katmai. In
the “‘Flag’’ vegetation of Iceland, according to Hansen (1930), rock-
dwelling alpine plants such as Silene acaulis, Saxifraga oppositifolia,
and Thalictrum alpinum grow together with aquatics including Swb-
ularia aquatica, Triglochin palustris, and Ranunculus reptans—a mix-
ture which passes my imagination even after my experiences at
Katmai. Again the Arctic fireweed, Epilobium latifolium, which is
confined to rock crevices and gravel bars in southern Alaska, in
Greenland invades the ponds and pushes creeping runners two to
three meters long out into water knee-deep (Rikli, 1910). A third
illustration I quote from Simmons (1913), who reports (p. 145)
“Statice maritima, a pronounced halophyte in the south becomes an
inland and mountain plant in the north.”

Arctic ecology fairly bristles with anomalies like these, the mere
mention of which arouses one’s desire to understand them. Probably
many of them would be readily explained if they were attacked ex-
perimentally. Some day we shall have laboratories as well as field
stations in the arctic where such problems may be solved.

DEFINITION OF TUNDRA

Not the least of the difficulties of dealing with arctic vegetation
lies in the prevalent confusion as to what constitutes “‘tundra.”’ Good
writers use the term in two distinct senses, some with a geographic,
some with a descriptive connotation. Thus the Standard Dictionary
defines it as ‘“‘A rolling treeless plain of Russia, Siberia, and the
American arctic regions, covered with moss and at times very moist
or marshy.” The reason for this ambiguous definition probably lies
in a natural desire to convey to persons who have never visited the

158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

arctic some concrete idea of the appearance of the tundra. But the
inevitable result has followed. The two meanings will not hold to-
gether. The arctic plains are by no means universally boggy, conse-
quently some writers have fixed upon the geographic sense of the
word and others upon the descriptive. Then the layman, unaware of
the real situation, and endeavoring to gain some idea of the country,
re-synthesizes the diverse conceptions and concludes that the whole
arctic is a barren moss-covered morass, gaining his ideas of the char-
acter of the tundra from those who use the word in a descriptive sense
and of its extent from those who use it in a geographic sense. This
is the situation which Stefansson has endeavored to set right with
his phrase “‘The friendly arctic’ and by his prolonged efforts to por-
tray the possibilities of reindeer and muskox culture in the north.

Clearly enough ambiguity cannot be tolerated in a scientific
term. If tundra is to be retained its meaning must be fixed. But un-
fortunately both senses are thoroughly established in good usage.
To Alaskans and to a certain extent to Canadians tundra is nearly
synonymous with bog. The forest bogs of southeastern Alaska which
differ little from the bogs of Oregon and Washington are called tun-
dras by the people of the country. Such usage is not confined to com-
mon parlance but is to be found in scientific literature as well. Wit-
ness the following from Summerhayes and Elton’s (1928, p. 264)
account of Spitzbergen. ‘‘Tundra, defined as swamp or moorland, is
quite absent from Spitzbergen.’”’ Nevertheless much of the “heath”
described from Spitzbergen and other parts of the Atlantic province
of the arctic is exactly the sort of vegetation which Alaskans would
single out as tundra, and thus confusion creeps into the ranks even
of those who use the word in a descriptive sense.

Now there are, to be sure, extensive areas of the tundra which are
best described to a southerner as boggy, but the larger part of the
arctic is arid, and the innermost subpolar areas are more arid than
the outer transitional regions. Simmons (1913, p. 31) discussing the
ecological conditions of the Arctic Archipelago says ““The prominent
and important factor I take its extreme dryness to be.’”’ The annual
precipitation in all high arctic countries is less than 10 inches, a de-
ficiency in rainfall which in lower latitudes invariably marks a desert.
It should be pointed out however that much less rainfall is required
to support a given type of vegetation in high latitudes than in low.
There are several reasons: (1) Evaporation is less on account of lower
temperature. (2) The water requirement of a given plant is propor-
tional to the length of the growing season. (3) In parts of the arctic

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 159

fog and mist are so prevalent that measurements of collected rainfall
do not give a correct idea of the humidity of the climate. (4) Thawing
of snow and ground ice keeps poorly drained situations soggy through-
out the summer with very little loss by runoff. But after all allowances
are made for economy in the utilization of the scanty rainfall the
essential fact remains that the arctic is predominantly an arid country
and that furthermore the high arctic is more arid than the lower.

It was in the discussion of desert country that the term tundra was
introduced to scientific literature by Middendorf (1864). Middendorf
found the analog of tundra to be not bog but steppe and went into
long and detailed comparisons of tundra and steppe. He found it in-
deed somewhat difficult to produce satisfactory differentiating char-
acters between the two aside from the plant species concerned. He
describes the Siberian tundra as the most extreme desert, ‘‘d6dste
Ode” (p. 736) and states that it is too dry to be compared with any
terrain familiar to Europeans. Further, he specifically states that no
peat develops in the “high tundra.”

Middendorf had a very wide acquaintance with the tundra not
only across Siberia but in Russia and Lapland as well. He clearly
differentiates the ‘‘high tundra’”’ or what we might call desert tundra
from “low tundra’’ which he describes as grassy or boggy. Inasmuch
as his account was not only the first, but remains to this day one of
the best scientific studies of the tundra I believe that we would do
well to follow him and use tundra in a geographic sense, applying it
to all of the country of the treeless arctic.

BOUNDARIES OF THE ARCTIC

Another major difficulty lies in the lack of any general agreement
as to the proper boundaries of the arctic. Before I could do anything
with my own area at Katmai I had to decide whether it was arctic
or temperate. Inasmuch as decision on this point would seem to be
a prime requisite for further treatment of the subject, I will digress
to consider it here.

The reason for the indecision as to the boundaries of the arctic
lies partly in the lack of any comprehensive general treatment of
arctic ecology and partly in a failure to recognize the fact that the
arctic, like any other major vegetation zone, requires subdivision
before it cdn be treated adequately. Explorers of high arctic countries
are inclined to tell us that ‘‘real arctic conditions” or ‘‘true arctic
vegetation” is limited to polar lands. It is natural enough for one
familiar with Spitzbergen, north Greenland, or Ellesmere Land to

160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

think northernmost Norway temperate by comparison. Thus we find
Simmons (1913, p. 144) criticising Hooker’s ideas of the Scandinavian
arctic, saying “Even the northernmost part of the Scandinavian
Peninsula is not an arctic but a temperate land.”

There is no difference of opinion as to the facts at issue. No one
doubts but that the flora of the arctic Archipelago is far more ex-
treme than that of the North Cape. But if the two are to be assigned
to different zones where should a line be drawn between them? From
the extreme poverty of the plant life of the polar desert there is the
most gradual transition to comparatively luxuriant vegetation like
that of arctic Norway. Any boundary separating the two would have
to be an entirely arbitrary affair.

It would be natural to call the transitional belt of more luxuriant
vegetation surrounding the polar area subarctic. But unfortunately
subarctic is well established in another application—to the circum-
polar boreal coniferous forest. If we are to follow accepted usage and
call the Hudsonian forest subarctic there is no alternative but to
denominate as arctic all territory beyond the forest border.

There is really no need of attempting to move the term subarctic
from the forest into the outermost belt of the arctic. If we recognize
that North Greenland, the northern portion of the arctic Archipelago,
and Spitzbergen are “‘high arctic”’ as is commonly done, it is a simple
matter to term such countries as South Greenland, northern Sean-
dinavia, and northern Alaska ‘“‘low arctic,” and that meets the prob-
lem just as well as though we should attempt to limit the “true
arctic” to polar areas and reduce the outermost belt to subarctic.

IMPORTANCE OF THE ARCTIC TIMBER-LINE

It will be agreed that the arctic timber-line, the limit of coniferous
forest, is one of the major vegetation boundaries of the earth. It 1s
not only clearcut and easy to recognize, but it marks a transition
important to life in its every aspect. Whether one thinks of the nu-
merous plants of the undergrowth which find shelter in the forest but
cannot grow beyond, of the birds and mammals which almost neces-
sarily have different habits and different adaptations within and
without the forest, or of the aboriginal cultures which develop in the
possession of timber or in the lack of it—from every point of view
the forest border is of fundamental importance. Even moré significant
from the human standpoint is the fact that the forest border marks
approximately the northern limit of cereals and of all sorts of agri-
cultural operations except reindeer grazing.

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 161

COMPARISON OF TREE LIMIT AND SUMMER TEMPERATURE

Recognizing that as one progresses toward the pole increasingly
severe conditions are encountered and that in a general way the
meagerness of polar life is due to the rigor of the climate, it is natural
to seek a climatic transition at the timber-line. If one is not too par-
ticular about close coincidence of climatic and vegetational lines this
may be done, for it may be observed that there is a rough parallelism
between the edge of the forest and the July isotherm of 10°C. (50°F.).

But if one examines the case more closely, the discrepancies become
somewhat disconcerting. On the Alaska peninsula the forest, which
ends at Kodiak, is two hundred and fifty miles behind the isotherm
which crosses at the Shumagin Islands. But in northeastern Alaska —
at about longitude 145° the forest has caught up and the two coincide.
East of the Mackenzie near Cape Dalhousie the forest goes nearly
one hundred and fifty miles beyond the isotherm. But on the west
shore of Hudson’s Bay it has fallen back again until it is three hundred
and fifty miles below the isotherm. At Ungava Bay in northern
Labrador, however, the forest again reaches forward until it is nearly
four hundred miles beyond the isotherm which bends far to the south,
nearly touching Newfoundland.

In western Eurasia as in western America the forest front, com-
posed now of pines and now of spruces, again lags behind the isotherm
by a hundred miles or more. This is true both in humid Norway and
in arid Russia. In Siberia both isotherm and forest reach far north-
ward, running probably as closely parallel as could be expected as
far as the mouth of the Kolyma River, longitude 160°. But there as
in eastern America the isotherm takes a sharp dip to the southward
from about 69° to 52°, finally leaving Kamchatka at about 56° while
the forest, here Larix dahurica, stretches nearly straight eastward
along the upper course of the Anadyr River, coming to the sea nearly
on the arctic circle at the head of the Gulf of Anadyr, more than 10°
(700 miles) north of the isotherm.

The arctic vegetation zone thus defined by the forest front is a
very irregular area. In the most southerly of the Aleutian Islands,
which by any criterion are undoubtedly arctic in character, the bound-
ary reaches down to latitude 51° 20’, which is a few miles further
south than London. But at the mouth of the Khatanga River in the
Tamir Peninsula it advances to 72° 50’, as far north as Upernivik,
Greenland. This is a difference in latitude greater by about 100 miles
than that from Miami, Florida to Montreal.

162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 4

THE ARCTIC FOREST-FRONT NOT A CLIMATIC LINE

In an effort to harmonize temperature and tree-line various writers,
Martin Vahl, Nordenskjold (1928), Brockmann-Jerosch (1919), and
others have tried empirically to make up some formula that would
fit the facts better than simple comparison with the isotherm. Such
efforts are at best only guesses and there is little attempt to show any
relation of cause and effect between the factors brought into the
equations. Vahl, for example, has used the ‘‘formula? v =a-+bk where
v represents the temperature of the warmest month and & that of the
coldest month, and when a and b are constants that have to be determined
in each case’ i.e. are not constants at all but merely factors intro-
duced, as a schoolboy would say, ‘‘to get the right answer.’ Such
operations are not very helpful and may become vicious if, as some-
times happens, they impart a false appearance of mathematical pre-
cision to the statements made.

All are familiar with the fact that unexpected deviations from pre-
dictions often lead science into its most important advances. We need
only recall the discovery of the two outer-most planets of our solar
system by reason of the perturbations in the orbits of the others. It
seems not at all unlikely that if we look behind the irregularities of
the forest border instead of trying to fit them into climatic conditions,
we may discover facts concerning climatic changes which will be of
the first order of importance.

CLIMATIC CHANGES SUGGESTED BY ANOMALIES IN TIMBER LINE

An example of the possible fruitfulness of this point of view may
be gained from consideration of the situation in northern Labrador
where the forest extends 400 miles further north than apparently it
should. This would suggest a recent climatic change—so recent that —
plant migrations have not yet adjusted the flora to the changed con-
ditions. Now it so happens that the Danish excavations of the sites
of the old Norse colonies in South Greenland exactly fit in with this
inference from ecology (Hovgaard, 1925). The mediaeval Norse col-
onists lie buried in perpetually frozen ground. This of itself is sur-
prising, for men do not often chop holes into ice to bury their dead.
More significant, however, is the fact that the graves are grown
through and through by the roots of trees. The roots even penetrated
into the marrow of the bones. Now tree roots cannot grow into frozen
soil. There is no question, therefore, but that within the last few
hundred years South Greenland had a climate far milder than at

2 Quoted from Nordenskjold (1928, p. 73). The italics are ours.

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 163

present, thus confirming the indication given by the forest. The
graves, however, leave much to be desired as to dates and other de-
tails of the climatic change which they demonstrate. It is not at all
impossible that a thorough study of timberline ecology around Un-
gava Bay might supply more specific information than is to be ob-
tained from any other source.

I should add in passing that while the meteorologists accept, per-
force, the evidence as to recent climatic change in Greenland they
are not at all prepared to explain it.

Turning to the western side of the Continent now, the opinions of
practically all explorers of Alaska are to the effect that here reverse
changes are occurring and that the forest is advancing. This opinion,
based on extensive but cursory observations of many men in many
places, has been confirmed by detailed studies.

At Kodiak Griggs (1934) and Bowman (1934) brought out the
following facts: (1) All the trees near the edge of the forest are young
—less than 100 years old, whereas three miles back from the edge
they exceed a meter in thickness and are over three hundred years
old. (2) Many old trees now in a dense forest of younger growth are
“open ground”’ trees with branches, now killed by overshading, clear
to the base. (3) The rate of growth at the forest edge compares fa-
vorably with that of the same species, Sitka spruce, in southeastern
Alaska many hundred miles behind the edge. (4) Records left by the
early Russian settlers explicitly describe as treeless, areas now cov-
ered with heavy forest. (5) Peat from the bogs contains only a few
scattering grains of spruce pollen such as would be blown a long dis-
tance, thus demonstrating that the present is the first forest that has
occupied the ground since the beginning of the bogs i.e., since the
glacial period.

Similar detailed studies, as yet unpublished, have been made by
Robert Marshall around Bettles in northern Alaska, Lat. 67°, Long.
152°. These tell the same story. Here a different forest composed of
white spruce is concerned. Mr Marshall tells me that the very last
trees grow as fast and in every way appear as favorably situated as
those many miles to the south of the forest limit and that the growth
rate equals that of the same species in Eastern Canada.

PLANT RANGES SUGGESTIVE OF ACTIVE MIGRATIONS IN PROGRESS

The distribution of a number of arctic herbs, likewise, cannot be
readily explained otherwise than on the hypothesis of active migra-
tion in progress. Pedicularis capitata, for example, is common and

164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

characteristic of the Empetrum heaths of Kodiak, Lat. 58°. It is wide-
ly distributed in Asia as far as the Altai. From this region it stretches
across Siberia and the American arctic through the Arctic Archipelago
and enters Greenland on the northwest coast, Lat. 78°. While its
abundance in the mild climate of Kodiak proves that its existence
by no means requires the rigor of a polar climate, it is entirely absent
from south Greenland, being restricted to the area immediately ad-
jacent to the American arctic islands. Another wide ranging species
which barely enters northwest Greenland is Androsace septentrionalis.
In this connection it is interesting to observe that there are a dozen
genera of plants which reach the Archipelago but do not cross to the
milder shores of Greenland. Cases like this may not be significant
however, for though migration seems altogether likely we have no
knowledge of the actual fact. In almost all such cases the migration
must be inferred. No actual study of the behavior of arctic species on
the edges of their ranges has been made. It would be of great ad-
vantage to know about these matters instead of having to speculate.
Methods of attacking such questions are available, (Griggs, 1914).
Recognizing this problem, Porsild (1932), who has had more experi-
ence with arctic vegetation than any one else, remarks concerning
some unsuccessful experiments of his, ‘‘I hope that the enumerated
experiments with native Greenland plants will show that plant dis-
persals and migrations so willingly and so liberally assumed in every
paper of plant geography may be quite different in nature itself.”

The advancing forest is in fact almost the only case of active mi-
gration that has been worked out. Not everyone will be inclined at
first to agree with me that the timberline constitutes the proper
boundary of the arctic, but I believe that if anyone who doubts my
thesis will try to replace the timber line by some other vegetation
line, he will find himself in difficulty at once.

DIFFICULTY OF CHARACTERIZING THE ARCTIC FLORISTICALLY

The fact is that it is difficult to characterize, much less to define,
the arctic by the plants that grow there. Plants confined to the arc-
tic are surprisingly few in number. That is, there are few species,
and there is not a single genus, confined to the arctic.? Moreover the
species endemic in the arctic are not among its most characteristic
plants.

3 Of the grass genus Pleuropogon listed by Hocker as endemic in the arctic two spe-
cies have since been discovered in west America, one in Oregon, the other in California,

on the lowlands as well as in the mountains. The original species, P. sabinet, remains,
however, one of the most characteristic of high arctic species.

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 165

Almost all arctic species, if species be taken in a broad sense, go
well down into the temperate zone. Indeed, all but 150 of the 762
arctic species recognized by Hooker (1861, p. 258), ‘“‘advance south
of parallel 40° north.”’

The floristic characteristics of the arctic are chiefly negative, due
to the absence from northern lands of species occurring at lower
latitudes. Thus the flora of the Aleutian region includes about 350
species of seed plants and that of arctic Siberia about 400, but the
arctic Archipelago has only 204 (Simmons, 1913), and many of these
reach only the southern islands, while north Greenland has only
about 125 species (Ostenfeld, 1926). Even so it would be easy to
characterize the arctic floras if it were the important species that drop
out. But the species which fail to go far north are generally those
which are already scarce further south. The situation will be clear
from a consideration of the plants of the extreme north where, if any-
where, definite arctic species should prevail. In extreme north Green-
land, north of 83 degrees of latitude, only three flowering plants grow:
The opposite-leaved saxifrage, Saxifraga oppositifolia;. the arctic
poppy, Papaver nudicaule; and a grass Alopecurus alpinus. The first
two are classified by Ostenfeld as low arctic. They occur in every
arctic province. Both are important members of the Katmai flora
1800 miles further south and the poppy extends to Colorado while
the saxifrage reaches Vermont. Only Alopecurus can be described as
high arctic and even it occurs in north Russia which barely enters
the arctic vegetation zone.

On Smith Sound, several hundred miles further south but still al-
most 1000 miles above the arctic circle in Latitude 78°-79°, Ekblaw
(1919) lists the six commonest plants as follows: the opposite-leaved
saxifrage, Saxifraga oppositifolia, blue grass, Poa pratensis, arctic
poppy, Papaver nudicaule, Cerasttum alpinum, Dryas integrifolia, and
Cassiope tetragona. It will be observed that only the two subarctic
members of the extreme high arctic trio given above are here included
and that our familiar Kentucky bluegrass is substituted for Alope-
curus. Of the others, Cerastium alpinum is common to all arctic dis-
tricts and is classed as low arctic by Ostenfeld. Dryas integrifolia is
more limited in distribution but is also low arctic, leaving Cassiope
tetragona as the sole type prevailingly characteristic of high arctic.
But it occurs also far down into Labrador and Alaska.

Another way of approaching the problem is by considering the
whole flora. Of the 125 species known from north Greenland above
76°, 11 according to Ostenfeld are subarctic, 59 low arctic, and 55

166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

high arctic. of the species prevailingly high arctic 43 occur also in
some low arctic region, Alaska, Scandinavia, Iceland, or Russia, or
at low arctic stations in Greenland. Of the twelve species remaining
which are confined to the high arctic, half belong to the ‘‘critical’’
genera Taraxacum, Poa, Draba, and Potentilla. A seventh, Braya
Thorildwulfir, is a segregate from the widespread B. purpurescens.
There remain Pleuropogon sabinet, Deschampsia arctica, Ranunculus
sabiner, Hesperis palasu, and Minuartia Rossi. Only two of these
twelve are even mentioned in Ekblaw’s general account of the vege-
tation; one of the Taraxacums is mentioned merely because it is en-
demic and Pleuropogon is reported as growing ‘‘in a few of the shallow
ponds.” Thus the high arctic can be characterized floristically only
by using species of minor importance in the vegetation. A number of
high arctic species are, indeed, high arctic in one region only. The
same is true in perhaps even greater degree in the low arctic.

LACK OF STRUCTURAL PECULIARITIES IN ARCTIC PLANTS

Because the plants of extreme polar habitats are all dwarfed and
held close to the ground, there is a popular idea that arctic plants
are possessed of some special anatomical peculiarities fitting them
for the conditions in which they live. This is not the case. On this
point Holm (1924, p. 81 B) speaks as follows:

‘‘As far as concerns the structure of arctic species it has been shown in the
preceding pages that no morphological structure seems absolutely charac-
teristic of these; they share the same development of their floral and vegeta-
tive organs with their southern allied species; they exhibit exactly the same
method of vegetative reproduction as these and are in many cases not of
such dwarfed stature as frequently described *******, There is thus no
morphological character by which arctic and alpine species may be defined
and we must therefore consider them from other points of view when the
question arises to distinguish them.”

ECOLOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE ARCTIC

Altogether the arctic can be characterized rather better ecologically
than any other way. This is true in spite of the difficulties of arctic
ecology. The prevalent vegetation type of the high arctic is open
fellfield, nearly bare, rocky ground most nearly analogous to talus
slopes with us. The only closed associations of any great extent are
heaths dominated by Cassiope tetragona or by mosses, especially by
Rhacomitrium lanuginosum, the famous ‘‘Grimmia heaths.”’ Closed
grassland is absent or restricted to very favorable situations which
are best considered as oases of low arctic vegetation advanced beyond
the general limit of that zone. The plants are perennial, annuals being

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 167

absent or almost so. All plants are held strictly to the ground, often
rising only an inch above the general level. Bogs are formed by plants
other than Sphagnum. Ponds are devoid of flowering plants or nearly
so. This, however, is not a hard and fast rule, for while there are no
aquatic flowering plants in Spitzbergen (Summerhayes and Elton,
1928, p. 265), both Batrachium trichophyllum and Hippurus vulgaris
occur in north Greenland.

In the low arctic, fellfield is restricted to exposed and unfavorable
situations. The heaths are dominated by Empetrum rather than by
Cassiope. The most favorable habitats are occupied by grassland
usually with bushes and scrub of willow, birch, or alder. The bogs
may consist largely of Sphagnum, though that moss is of much less
importance than in the boreal region to the southward.

A number of aquatics penetrate into the outer portion of the arctic
zone, including, besides Hippurus and Batrachium, several species of
Potomogeton, Utricularia, Myriophyllum, Menyanthes, Callitriche, and
others.

CAUSES OF THE INDISCRIMINATE CHARACTER OF
ARCTIC VEGETATION

These various considerations as to definitions, boundaries, and
characterizations were no part of my original plan of study, but as I
have shown it was necessary to go into them before I could under-
take the problem which confronted me at the outset: Namely, the
reason for the indiscriminate character of the vegetation at Katmai.
Finally we are ready to undertake consideration of that problem.

The nearest analogs of tundra in temperate vegetation all belong
close to the pioneer stage. The highest stages reached in the low arctic
of Alaska are the poplar woods and the alder grassland. Back in the
forest the poplar woods are paralleled by the cottonwood thickets
that come up on new gravel bars along rivers, and something very
similar to the alder grassland develops on avalanche tracks, where
frequent disturbance prohibits the growth of climax forest.

A good share of the tundra is what we should call boggy, and in a
country where bogs are to be found chiefly encircling and invading
ponds, it is easy to see again that bogs stand close to the pioneer
stage. The fellfield of the extreme north, which most nearly resembles
talus slopes with us is still younger in the ecological scale. In the case
of the two associations first mentioned, the river bar woodland and
the avalanche track, the analogy with the arctic is rather good. If
the same were true with bog and talus slope there would have been

168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

little difficulty in working out the vegetation of Katmai. But with
them the analogies are useful only insofar as they may serve in a
feeble way to give one who has never seen the arctic some idea of the
physical conditions of the habitats concerned. It is questionable in-
deed whether the attempt to draw analogies in these cases does not
do more harm than good, for the differences between the arctic and
the temperate types are more significant than their resemblances.

With us soggy, undrained bogs and loose, open talus slopes are so
different in every way that we cannot imagine any difficulty in dis-
tinguishing them. Not so in the arctic. Neither bog nor fellfield has
a distinctive flora, for most of the commonest and most characteristic
of arctic plants spread promiscuously not only over bog and fellfield
but over all habitats of intermediate dryness as well. And since this
series, which includes the heaths, occupies the greater part of many
arctic countries, herein lies the problem of arctic vegetation.

RESEMBLANCES OF ARCTIC AND RUDERAL VEGETATION

So long as I tried to solve this problem of arctic ecology by com-
parison with the native vegetation down here I found it impossible
to proceed. Finally, however, I came to see the trouble. These north-
ern vegetation types stand lower in the plant succession than any
of the natural associations of the south. When I began to compare
them with the ephemeral weed vegetation of cultivated fields a com-
prehension of arctic ecology began at once to dawn on me.

Go out to one of the numerous real estate developments where
they have made over the landscape recently and try to classify the
weeds that appear. Cataloguing the plants over several such develop-
ments, you will make a long list of familiar weeds. Now try to classify
them as to habitat preference and their association with each other.
You will make little progress, for the weed cover of new ground varies
indefinably from place to place. The weeds, with some wellknown ex-
ceptions, have no associations. The population of any area depends
much more on the kinds of seeds that happen to fall thereon than on
fitness of the species present for that particular habitat.

SIMILARITY OF FELLFIELD AND PLOWLAND

One of the most evident resemblances, and perhaps one of the most
significant, between fallow fields and high tundra is in the large
amount of mineral soil exposed to colonization, and the further north
one goes the more bare ground there is. On the fellfield the plants
are spotted here and there with so much space between that a picture

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 169

of the habitat looks like a bed of shingle and the inconspicuous plants
are hardly noticed except upon close inspection. This eliminates one
of the most important of the ecological factors of lower latitudes.
There is no struggle for room.

On the high tundra most of the plants are entirely out of touch with
their neighbors. There is always plenty of free space for new plants.
Thus while in the south nearly all plants have continually to wrest
their living so to speak out of the very mouths of others which would
take it if strong enough, in the far north the struggle for existence
consists entirely of passive endurance of the rigors of the climate.

A second point of resemblance between tundra and plowland lies
in the relatively small amount of humus commonly present in both.
As everyone knows, one of the chief problems of agriculture is the
loss of organic matter consequent upon cultivation and the ensuing
wash. Fields cut out of the virgin forest soon lose the heavy coat of
leaf mold which had been built up through ages of primeval conditions.
Thereafter their soil approaches nearer and nearer to a mass of in-
organic detritus unless organic matter is artificially added by green
manures or similar means. This of itself favors the development of
the species we know as weeds over the humus-loving natives originally
in possession, (Croxton, 1928). These weeds both ecologically and
floristically resemble arctic plants. In the arctic the formation of
humus and peat either in thick layers or in small floccules is at a
minimum.

Pedologists would call arctic soil very young, if they were willing
to admit that the rock detritus which covers the ground in high arctic
countries constitutes a soil at all. Presumably this juvenile, or better
infantile, condition of the soil is due to an unfavorable climate which
prevents the development of a proper soil. One would like to be able
to discuss this problem in more detail but present knowledge does
not permit. It is not impossible that it might have important impli-
cations.

Arctic ground is almost everywhere poor in nitrogen. This is gen-
erally attributed to the effect of low temperatures on the activity of
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, but no thorough study of the matter seems
to have been undertaken. The deficiency in nitrogen is so important
that cliffs manured by nesting birds support a vegetation notably
more luxuriant than occurs elsewhere. The arctic ‘‘barren grounds”
might perhaps be ‘‘made to blossom like the rose”’ by the application
of fertilizer.

A third and most important similarity of tundra to farmland lies

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 4

in the unstable condition of the soil. As a means of stirring up the
_ ground and uprooting plants nothing but the plow can compare with
the rigors of the arctic climate. The violence of heave and throw in
daily freezing and thawing have been commented on by many writers.
Another factor of importance has been brought to light by Johansen
(1924, p. 26). He ascribes the bare spots on the tundra largely to dis-
turbance by running water from melting snow and to slumping away
of the ground after melting of ground ice. The plants which remain
are those which happen to be favorably situated to escape such acci-
dents. Thus tundra and field are alike in that on neither is vegetation
allowed to grow for long before it is uprooted and destroyed.

If undisturbed the ruderal associations of cultivated fields and new
ground soon pass into definite old field associations characteristic of
the particular vegetation province concerned; white birches in New
England, pines in the southern coastal plain. It is only by repeated
plowing that the ruderal stage is maintained. In the north the neces-
sary disturbance is supplied by Nature herself.

On account of the vicissitudes of freezing and thawing adjacent
patches of tundra may be of very different age. While freshly denuded
areas are conspicuous, as the years pass they gradually fade into the
general tundra thereby introducing another element into the con-
fusion of an explorer without detailed knowledge of the history of
the areas observed.

HOMOLOGIES OF ARCTIC HEATH AND BOG

In a field the open stage wherein the soil is still largely unoccupied,
which is comparable with the fellfield of the North, quickly passes
into a closed ‘“‘association”’ in which competition is keen and destruc-
tive as every gardener knows. In the extreme high arctic this open
stage is permanent and succession does not go beyond the fell field.

In more favorable localities the vegetation spreads out and occupies
the whole ground forming heath or bog. These are homologous with
the second stage in the revegetation of a field. In the field the vegeta-
tion of this second stage may be even more erratic in composition
than in the initial stage because the first pioneers consist exclusively
of the species able to come up at once and they may arrive well
ahead of the general weed population. In parts of the coastal plain
for example, crab-grass, Syntherisma sanguinalis, always appears first.
Following this in the second stage is a diverse assemblage made up
of any one of a number of species or any mixture of them depending
on the seeds that happen to be most available.

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 171

Because the ground is covered, the second stage may appear to be
closed association, but this is a false appearance for such areas lack
the essential character of truly closed associations in which each
species present has some special fitness for the conditions of the habi-
tat and all lacking such fitness are excluded by the intensity of the
competition. If the term association as applied to vegetation means
anything beyond mere physical propinquity it is clear that vegetation
in this stage does not constitute proper associations at all.

This is the condition of the protean heaths and bogs at Katmai
wherein the plants did not keep their places and so baffled a would-be
classifier. Lack of the close-drawn competition which determines
membership in associations higher in the succession explains both
the apparent lack of habitat preferences in the most characteristic
species, and of the infinite variation in the composition of the plant
cover. }

It may be needless to adduce further evidence that the tundra is
in fact in the ruderal condition beyond that with which this essay is
prefaced, but I shall cite one additional illustration showing how the
irregularities in the distribution of arctic plants correspond with the
vagaries in the occurrence of weeds. Three Greenland nunataks have
been described by Warming (1888, p. 84-86). Their combined flora
numbered 54 vascular plants, but no more than 27 occurred on any
one of the three, and only two species were common to all three
mountains. Clearly most of the 54 species, if once established, would
thrive on any of these nunataks. The explanation here, as in the field,
is that the flora of each is due to the accidents of immigration rather
that to special fitness, and that colonization has not been completed.

The essentially unstable ecological condition of the tundra thus
runs into and fits in with the instability of a higher order discussed
above, namely the floristic irregularities which suggest that active
migration of arctic species is still in full swing.

WEEDS NATIVE TO THE ARCTIC

I have said also that the ruderal character of arctic vegetation is
floristic as well as ecologic. There is no time here to go into such an
analysis of the arctic flora as would be necessary adequately to de-
velop that fact. A brief summary with a few examples will illustrate
my point.

The usual conception of arctic plants is that when they come south
at all they are confined to high mountains. It will probably surprise
many to learn that there are fewer species native above the arctic

172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 24, NO. 4

circle which in their southern extensions are confined to alpine situ-
- ations than of those which we know as weeds of cultivated ground.
Long ago Hooker (1861, p. 277) pointed out:

“Of the plants found north of the arctic circle very few are absolutely or
almost confined to frigid latitudes (only 50 out of 762 are so) ; the remainder,
so far as their southern distribution is concerned, may be referred to two
classes; one consisting of plants widely diffused over the plains of northern
Europe, Asia, and America of which there are upwards of 500; the other of
plants more or less confined to the alps of these countries, and still more
southern regions of which there are only about 200.”

To illustrate I cite a few familiar plants of fields and other new
habitats which are native to the arctic, though some of them have
come to us only as introductions from northern Europe. In this con-
nection Porsild’s (1932) paper on Alien plants and apophytes of Green-
land is most instructive.

One of the worst of our weed invaders from Europe is sheep sorrel,
Rumex acetosella. This is native in Greenland and is abundant in the
untouched natural vegetation as far north as Disco, Lat. 70°. Dr.
C. O. Erlanson tells me that the Greenland plant is in all respects
closely similar to our weed.*

Toad rush, Juncus bufonius, a cosmopolitan weed which with us
frequents roadsides and other open places, goes far north reaching
67° 49’ in Greenland, occurring there ‘‘in places which preclude human
introduction.” (Porsild, 1932.)

Horsetail, Hquisetum arvense, which though unable to compete with
more rapidly reproducing annual herbs for the occupation of cul-
tivated fields, is fundamentally similar to a weed in that it is confined
to new ground and is supplanted whenever species beyond the pioneer
stage can take hold. With us it is restricted to such places as sand
bars and road embankments. At Katmai it dominated the ashflats
for a time after the eruption, coming through ash blankets too thick
for other plants to penetrate. It goes to the far north reaching Spitz-
bergen and the north coast of Greenland, Lat. 83°.

Chickweed, Stellaria media, one of the most widespread and ubi-
quitous of weeds occurs generally in arctic as well as temperate coun-
tries. In Greenland it enters natural vegetation uninfluenced by hu-
man occupancy, yet it is considered certainly introduced. In arctic
Norway, however, it is believed primeval. (Jesson and Lind 1923,
Holmboe, 1906.) Its ability to enter the native vegetation of the arctic

4 This does not accord with Porsild’s published accounts. Erlanson, however, is
more familiar with the temperate plant than is Porsild.

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 173

really gives clearer testimony as to the ruderal character of that
vegetation than if it were native. This is clear from a consideration
of its habitats with us. Here it is strictly an ephemeral weed unable to
hold on in any permanent stabilized plant cover.

Rhode Island bent grass, Agrostis canina, is native to the arctic
Archipelago, Greenland, and arctic KEurope—but not at all to Rhode
Island.

Similarly, Kentucky bluegrass, which as detailed above goes to
the far north, is not believed to be indigenous in the northeastern
United States. H. M. Raup (1934) discovered, however, that it grows
in extensive pure stands in the subarctic meadows of the Mackenzie.

Our common winter cress, Barbarea vulgaris, likewise is native from
Lake Superior northwestward into Alaska and Arctic Europe, but
comes to us here as an introduced weed.

Plantago lanceolata is given by the Canadian Arctic Expedition
(Johansen, 1924, p. 41 C.) as one of the characteristic plants of the
uninhabited American arctic coast. It is also in arctic Europe where,
however, Norman regards it as introduced. Hereabout it is one of our
worst weeds.

Ranunculus acris, one of the commonest introduced weeds in our
territory, is native and abundant in Arctic Norway and in South
Greenland.

Polygonum aviculare, the little smartweed which everywhere edges
into well-trodden paths in this country, or a close relative (there has
been a recent redefinition here) is native in arctic Scandinavia, Ice-
land, and Greenland as far north as 70°.

Cardamine pratensis, which in the United States is native north-
ward, but escaped southward, is indigenous throughout Greenland
up to 76° as well as in Scandinavia.

Yarrow, Achillea millefoliwm and var. nigrescens (Fernald 1925,
p. 269), is common on the tundra of the uninhabited country of the
Alaska peninsula. Whether the native Alaskan plant is the same
species as ours is disputed, but our common weed is indigenous to
Scandinavia and Iceland. In Greenland it is replaced by the native
arctic American form.

Anthoxanthum odoratum, the sweet-smelling vernal grass which
comes up in waste places everywhere hereabout, is common in Scan-
dinavia, Iceland, and South Greenland. In the latter place, however,
it is believed to have been introduced by the old Norse colonists.

Epilobium angustifolium, the fireweed whose ephemeral character
in this region is attested by its common name, is one of the most

174. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

characteristic of arctic plants, occurring in all low arctic districts and
ascending to 70° in Greenland.

CONCLUSION

In short every feature of arctic vegetation, the anomalies in the
geographical distribution of arctic species, the occurrence of many
species in all sorts of habitats, and their apparent indifference to the
diverse conditions thereof, the lack of definiteness to the composition
of the plant cover in any particular habitat, the physical instability
of the ground itself, the general ruderal character of arctic vegetation,
the large number of our weeds which are native to the arctic—all
these testify to an instability in arctic vegetation very different from
the relatively stable plant formations of the temperate zone.

Each of the items contributing to the belief that arctic vegetation
remains in a state of flux goes to indicate that the plants of the arctic,
individually and collectively, are still far from equilibrium with their
environment. This conclusion has far-reaching consequences.

First, combined with the demonstrated active migration of the
Alaskan forest into the arctic, it gives definite support to the sup-
position that vegetation there has not yet recovered from the glacial
period but is still in process of active readjustment.

Second, a science of arctic ecology cannot be built up on the as-
sumption that the place and mode of occurrence of a plant give re-
liable indications of its optimum habitat. As this is one of the central
theses upon which the ecology of the temperate zone has been built
up, it is clear that arctic ecology must be worked out on an entirely
different basis.

If the study of arctic ecology be approached from a dynamic rather
than from a static and merely descriptive point of view, if instead of
attempting to fit arctic vegetation into a supposedly stable climate,
we try to work out the great movements of vegetation that are in
progress, there lies open to the investigator a rich field which bids
fair to throw much light on many features of our environment and
its history that have an importance far beyond the immediate prob-
lems concerned. |

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aufname Pflanzengeographische Kom. der Schweiz. Naturf. Ges. vol. 6._1919.
CEenrt es, W. C. Revegetation of Illinois coal-stripped land. Ecology 9: 155-175.

8.
Exsiaw, W. Eumer. Plant life of northwest Greenland. Nat. Hist. 19: 272-291.
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Fernatp, M. L. Persistence of plants in unglaciated areas of boreal America. Gray
Herbarium Memoirs 2. 1925.

ae Me Recent discoveries in the Newfoundland flora. Rhodora 35: 85, 120,

Frizs, THorREE.C. Bot. Untersuch. in nord. Schweden. Upsala. 1918.

Grices, Ropert F. On the behavior of some species on the edges of their ranges. Bull.
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Griaes, Ropert Ff. The edge of the forestin Alaska. Ecology. In press, April. 1934.

Hansen, H. M. Vegetation of Iceland. In Koldurp and Warming, Bot. Iceland, 3:
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HOuLMBOBR, JENS. Stud. norske pl. hist. Nyt Mag. 44: 61-74. 1906.

Hooker, J.D. Distrib. arctic plants. Trans. Linn. Soc. 23: 251-348. 1861.

HoveaarD, W. The Norsemen in Greenland: Recent discoveries at Herjolfsnes. Geogr.
Rev. 15: 605-615. 1925.

JESSON, KNup oa LiINp, Jens. Det Dansk Makurkrudts historie. K. Dansk vid.
Selsk. Copenhagen. Natur & Math. Afd.8 R VIII. 1923.

JOHANSEN, Frits. General observations on vegetation. Rept. Can. Arctic Exped.,
1913-18. Vol. 5, pt. 3. 1924.

MippEnporrF, A. Von. Szberische Reise 4:1: 736. 1864.

NORDENSKJOLD, Orto. The geography of the polar regions. Am. Geogr. Soc. Sp. Pub.
8:72, 73. 1928.

Norman, J. M. Index Sup. Soc. Nat. Spec. Pl. non-vasc. Prov. arctica Norwegiae,
sponte nasc. Kgl. Norske Vidensk, Selsk. Skr. 5: 1-58. 1865.

OsTENFELD, C.H. Bot. Faeroes. In Warming, Bot. Faeroes 867-1026. 1908.

Cees A. E. Reindeer grazing in northwest Canada. Canada Dept. Interior.
1929.

Porsitp, Morten P. Flora of DiskoTIsland. Arb. Dansk. Artk. Sta. No. 11. 1920.

Porsitp, Morten P. Alien Plants and apophytes in Greenland. Med. om Grgnland
92: 1-85. 1932.

Ravup. H. M. Phytogeographic studies in the Peace and Laird River regions. Contrib.
Arnold Arbor. 6. 1934.

Rixur, M. Veg. Disko Island. Vegbild. 7: 8. 1910.

Stumons, HerMAN G. A survey of the phytogeography of the arctic American Archi-
pelago. Lunds Univ. Arsskr. nf. 9: no. 18. 1913.

SumMErRHAYES, V. 8. and Etton, C. S. Further contributions to the ecology of Spitz-
bergen. Jour. Ecol. 16: 193-268. 1928.

WaRMING, E. OmGrénlands Veg. Med. om Grgnl. 12: 84-86. 1888.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.—Saline peat profiles of Puerto Rico.t
A. P. DacHNowSKI-SToksEs and Ray C. RoseErts, Bureau of
Chemistry and Soils.

The source of organic matter found in salt and brackish waters of

the sea and the question of its abundance, specific nature, and func-
tion either in relation to the nutrition of marine bacterial and animal
life, to the formation of coal, oil, and petroleum, or to practical agri-
culture, presents a number of highly important problems. Much in-
formation has been published showing the development of swamp
forests of mangrove and other halophytic plant communities, but
the most significant results of vegetation at work, namely, the char-
acteristic features of organic accumulations and the phases bearing
upon past conditions, have scarcely been considered.

The opportunity for the following article arose through field work
carried on in Puerto Rico in connection with a survey for the U. Be

1 Received February 6, 1933.

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

Bureau of Chemistry and Soils with the cooperation of Dr. J. A.
Bonnet, Chief of the Soils Division, of the Insular Experiment Sta-
tion of Puerto Rico. Vertical cross sections believed to be representa-
tive of coastal swamps and salt marshes in northern and eastern
parts of the island were collected by the junior author and the Sta-
tion’s surveyors. The former also made the determinations of soluble
salts contained in the samples.” The descriptions of the peat profiles
and the general discussion regarding them were contributed by the
senior author. A specific aim has been that of basing the study upon
the point of view set forth in a recent book dealing with a new system
of classifying American peat deposits.’

Puerto Rico is an island well within the tropical zone in the At-
lantic waters. It is approximately 182 km. (113 miles) long and 66
km. (41 miles) wide and includes an area of about 8,900 square kilo-
meters (3,425 square miles). The island is largely mountainous and
primarily of volcanic origin. It has been described as a portion of a
chain of mountains under water, the summits of which reach an alti-
tude of 1,350 m. (4,429 feet). Other summits of the range form the
other islands which with Puerto Rico make up the group known as
the Greater Antilles. A scientific survey of the region is in progress
by cooperating institutions. Studies on the geology and physiography
of Puerto Rico will be found in the publications issued by the New
York Academy of Sciencest and the New York Botanical Garden.*
A valuable descriptive account of the plant ecology of Puerto Rico
and certain phytogeographic relations of the vegetation have been
given by Gleason and Cook,‘ while information as to the climate and
soils of the island may be obtained from the reports of the United
States Weather Bureau and the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.’

CHARACTERISTICS OF MANGROVE PEAT

On the coastal plain of the east side of the island are found num-
erous parcels of tidal mangrove swamps that grow in the water of
the open bays and the open ocean where wave action is characteristic
of the more exposed shores. The red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle

2 The authors are indebted to Mr. E. H. Batury of this Bureau for the hydrogen-
ion determinations on the air-dried samples.

8’ DACHNOWSKI-STOKES, A. P., and AuER, V. American peat deposits. In Handbuch
der Moorkunde, vol. 7. Gebr. Borntraeger, Berlin. 1933.

4 Sci. Surv. Puerto Rico I-VI. 1923-1926.

5 Britton, N. L. and Wotcott, G. N. Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Nat-
uralists’ guide to Americas, 700-705. 1926.

6 Sci. Surv. Puerto Rico VII. 1927.

7 Dorsey, C. W., MesMER L., and Caine T. A. Soil Survey from Arecibo to Ponce,
P.R. Field Oper. Bureau Soils, 1902: 793-839. 1903.

APRIL 15, 1934 STOKES AND ROBERTS: PEAT PROFILES LWP

L.) is usually the pioneer species. This characteristic shrubby ever-
green tree is widely distributed on tropical coasts and is the first to
appear in the open water offshore. It extends farthest into salt water
where it makes a dense growth and builds up islands of peat that
are occupied by it alone. Colonies of impenetrable thickets, separated
by tortuous channels of tidal salt water, push steadily seaward the
margin of the swamp, gradually forming broad expanses that extend
over hundreds of acres and are related chiefly to the gradient of the
shore, shape of the sea floor, and the depth of salt water.

In the formation of new peat land the prominent adaptational
peculiarities of the red mangrove are the specialized roots that arise
from branches, grow down vertically as an interlacing tangle of stout
pithy roots and together with numerous fine rootlets become anchored
in the underlying soil. This dense network of roots and rootlets re-
tards greatly the movement of. sea water; it retains any decaying
fallen leaves and twigs of the trees and any suspended organic matter
and floating particles of silt or clay that may be carried by the water.
Thus a type of peat profile is developed bringing ultimately the level
of the layer to that of high tide.

Ensenada Honda type. In vertical cross section this type of profile
represents one continuous layer of mangrove peat. The characteristics
stated below were observed on a monolithic sample collected about
2 km. east of Ensenada Honda. It illustrates the development of a
long coastal area of peat facing the waters of the ocean and connected
with mangrove swamps most of which are under salt water and ex-
tend from the coast to the foothills. The morphological features of
the profile may be described as follows:

Mangrove peat: 0 to 101.6 cm. brown to reddish-brown, coarse but firm
fibrous peat, consisting chiefly of a porous, interlacing network of fine rootlets,
yellowish-brown in color, brittle when dry, crumbling into small particles.
Embedded in the tangle of rootlets are relatively small quantities of dark
colored, finely divided organic sediments carried by tides and waves of sea
water. A prominent feature is considerable amounts of stout roots of man-
grove, the pith of which is in varying states of decomposition. The whole
profile section is indistinctly differentiated, free from woody fragments and
plant remains of secondary species, contains little mineral material, and is
but feebly altered by soil making processes; it is the product of the roots
and rootlets from a pure stand of mangrove. Soluble salts are present in the
entire profile in amounts ranging between 3 and 54 per cent and the reaction
of the air-dried material is strongly acid (pH 4.3-4.6). The thickness of the

layer varies in places from 1 to 14 m. and rests abruptly on coarse white
sand of unknown depth.

Many of the coastal mangrove swamps are cut for charcoal and

|
1 |

178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 4 |

fuel, and serve as an important source of income. They re-establish
themselves easily under natural conditions and should be used along
newly built embankments as a means of preventing the wash of
waves and undermining.

PEAT PROFILE FORMATION IN LAGOONS

On the north shore of Puerto Rico there are many places that are
free from effective wind and wave action, but where salt water flows
inland by tidal movement and produces saline conditions. The shel-
tered bays, estuaries, and great lagoons east of San Juan are of this
nature. The shallow sea waters favor deposition of organic ooze, over
and around which grows a halophytic vegetation showing transitions
from saline to brackish waters and a succession of plant communities
from shore lines fringed with littoral swamp forest of mangroves to
marshes of cattail, rushes, and sawgrass toward the landward side.
The mangrove swamps occur in strips bordering on quiet salt water
in direct connection with the sea.

In general several species of mangrove compose the swamp forest.
Of these the great bulk are red mangrove and to a less extent the
black mangrove (Avicennia nitida L.). Other species such as Lagun-
cularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus, with an undergrowth of
smaller shrubs and herbaceous plants are relatively more abundant
landward. The presence of secondary species generally indicates an
interference with the penetration of tidal salt water and the tendency
of rains or fresh water streams to dilute periodically the salinity of
the groundwater.

Along the shore at sufficient depths to preclude agitation by cur-
rents and waves, the bottom is covered with soft, black organic ooze.
The formation of this residue appears to be partly a result of the ac-
tion of bacteria in the salt water. By decomposing the remains of
marine plants and animals a layer is formed that can be designated as
sedimentary peat because of its similarity in origin and probably in
chemical composition® to the sedimentary peat found in fresh water
lakes and ponds. The thickness of the marine layer varies consider-
ably but in some protected localities the mud-like residue is present
in great abundance. Its decomposition is sufficiently slow to indicate
that the constituents are altered anaerobically to a very small extent
after their deposition. The various processes that might produce such
beds of fine organic material, and preserve them as marine sediments,

8 Trask, P. D., and Hammar, H. E. Some relation of the organic constituents of
sediments to the formation of petroleum. Abstract in this JoURNAL 23; 568. 1933.

APRIL 15, 1934 STOKES AND ROBERTS: PEAT PROFILES 179

have not received much consideration as yet. Some significant con-
clusions, however, may be drawn from the fact that the content of
organic matter is consistently large and that its deposition is under
saline conditions below effective wave action. For purposes of com-
parison the following profile is of interest.

Martin Pena type. The chief distinguishing feature of this profile
is the fact that it is composed of two layers, markedly different in
texture and composition. It consists typically of a surface layer of
fibrous mangrove peat and an underlying layer of marine sedimentary
peat. The profile was collected about 14 km. east of Martin Pefia
railroad station from an area of mangrove swamp that represents an
old channel-like depression and connected at one time Lake San Jose
with the Harbor of San Juan. Much of the swamp forest has been
cut-over for fuel; its surface is under water at sea level, and the en-
trance of tide water causes saline conditions some distance in the in-
terior portion. A detailed study of the profile brings out the following:

Mangrove peat: 0 to 28 cm.; thin surface cover of black, sticky organic tidal
ooze containing an occasional mollusk shell; the sediment varies in thickness
from 5 mm. to 1.5 em. Below it is reddish-brown, coarsely fibrous, matted
mangrove peat which consists of a tangle of yellowish colored fine rootlets
and large reddish-brown pithy aerial and lateral roots of mangrove (species
of Rhizophora and Avicennia) embedded in black, finely divided organic resi-
due. The material contains about 3 per cent of soluble salts and has a mod-
erately acid reaction (pH 5.6).

28 to 61 cm.; finely fibered, very dark brown to mottled, more or less
firm mangrove peat; it consists of a large proportion of black organic residue
held in a meshwork of fine yellowish rootlets and is penetrated by a few
stout, branching pithy roots in varying states of decomposition. The material
is saline and acid (pH 5.1).

Sedimentary peat: 61 to 92 cm.; grayish-black, soft, oozy mixture com-
posed chiefly of organic residue of the size of colloidal particles, together with
gray colored fine rootlets. The layer is penetrated by a few pithy roots of
mangrove; it becomes dense and hard when dry and breaks with smooth
fractures. The content of soluble salts varies between 3 and 33 per cent and
the reaction is moderately acid (pH 5.6).

At a depth ranging from 1 to 14 m., the underlying mineral soil is bluish
green to gray plastic clay.

SALINIZATION OF A PEAT AREA

On the coastal shore of the island, between Arecibo and Barceloneta
a line of consolidated sand dunes and limestone hills form a pro-
nounced ridge. It separates from the near-by ocean an extensive
level marsh nearly 13 km. long and from 1 to 13 km. wide, known
locally as Cafio Tiburones. The natural outlet of the marsh is at the
western end but numerous ditches and canals intended to drain it

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

have facilitated the entrance of salt water. Much of the surface of
the marsh is at or below sea level and the natural vegetation indicates
that in some places it is influenced by the denser salt water while
in other parts the soil water is brackish or nearly fresh because of
its slow diffusion. _

Where the vegetation is still in a natural condition, Cook and Glea-
son’ report that it consists of almost pure stands of cattail (Typha
angustifolia L.) and sawgrass (Mariscus jamaicensis [Crantz] Brit-
ton), while at wider intervals are small patches of reed (Phragmites
communis L.) and isolated thickets of shrubs. The vegetation changes
more or less abruptly toward the western end into continuous masses
of ferns (Acrostichum aureum L.) and still farther west into mangrove
swamps where the salinity is increased by the entrance of the tides.

Ecologists are still uninformed as to the details of the origin and
history of this marsh. The evidence of the surface vegetation as to
the factors that operated during past periods is very slight, and there
is reason to believe that the development of the marsh might be due
perhaps to a progressive submergence of the coast. Since the compo-
sition and appearance of any vertical peat section depends primarily
on the plant remains caused by a preponderance of species and by
the successional trends of the vegetation, a detailed study of a profile
should reveal any changes in natural conditions.

Cano Tiburones type. The profile described below was collected
from the eastern part of the Cafio Tiburones marsh, about 15 km.
east of Arecibo. Its distinguishing features display two layers of peat
in a reversed sequence of which the lower material is coarsely fibrous
peat, developed under marsh conditions influenced by brackish wa-
ter, while the upper layer is markedly dense and heavy in texture
and represents conditions of nearly fresh water and a rising water
level.

‘Sedimentary muck: 0 to 26 em.; under cultivation; the material at the
surface develops a black, granular muck, more or less mineralized; it contains
bits of fine rootlets from crops (sugar cane) and shows channels of burrowing
insects and worms. Downward it continues into sticky plastic sedimentary
peat of heavy texture, dense, compact and hard when dry, tending to break
into angular cloddy aggregates that later disintegrate into loose granules.
The cultivated material is neutral in reaction (pH 7.3).

Tule peat: 26 to 58 em.; black, stringy fibrous peat consisting mainly of
soft, partly decomposed vertical stems and the rootstocks of tule (Scerpus
sp., Eleocharis sp. and others), embedded in sticky plastic organic residue
derived from secondary herbaceous plants. The material contains very small

® Cook, M. T., and Gieason, H. A. Ecological survey of the flora of Puerto Rico.
Journ. Dept. of Agri. P. R. 12: 1-189. Jllus. 1928.

APRIL 15, 1934 STOKES AND ROBERTS: PEAT PROFILES 181

amounts of soluble salts, is slightly acid in reaction (pH 5.9) and shows a
tendency to compaction and hardening when dry.

58 to 63 em.; band of dark gray clayey mineral material probably due to
flood waters; it is mottled with black organic residue and channeled ver-
tically with partly decomposed, flattened culms of tule sedges (Scirpus sp.);
the material is moderately saline and acid in reaction.

63 to 90 cm.; coarse stringy-fibrous tule peat, very dark brown to black,
consisting largely of vertical, partly decomposed, more or less flattened stems
of tule (Scirpus sp.) in a matrix of plastic amorphous organic residue. No
visible alterations have taken place in the material during the period of time
it has been buried by the mineral sediments. The content of soluble salts is
fairly high, and the reaction is strongly acid (pH 4.2).

The thickness of the layer extends to a depth of 14 m. below the surface
and the underlying mineral material is a bluish-gray, plastic clay.

It is apparent that Cafio Tiburones first developed as a marsh
characterized by fresh or brackish water in which tall-stemmed rushes
(Scirpus sp.) were dominant and persisted in great abundance as the
pioneer plant community. The profile section also indicates a sudden
inflow of erosion water that carried with it large quantities of clayey
sediments. Flooding, that may be attributed to a period of very moist
climatic conditions,!° or else subsidence, appears to have continued
down to recent times. The change brought about a stand of water so
nearly fresh that aquatic vegetation, forming sedimentary peat, re-
placed the tule marsh. The vegetation dominating at the present
time is associated in places with saline conditions due to the entrance
of tide water, but no particular part of it has, as yet, contributed to
the development of fibrous peat.

SUMMARY

A brief discussion has been given of the more important character-
istic features of three peat profiles that are representative of coastal
shore conditions of Puerto Rico. These profiles from the tropics are
members of a major group that includes two regional subdivisions,
namely salt marshes such as exist along the open bays and estuaries
of northern coastal states, and mangrove swamp forests and tidal
marshes of tropical coasts and islands. To this maritime group of
peat land the name halotrophic has been applied, to designate the
fact that profile development is related to salt water or brackish
water by the effective activity of plant communities associated in a
successional trend. The peat materials are of a distinctive nature;
they promise a basis for paleontological correlations and they may
be significant in indicating the character of source beds of coal and

© Reports of Second Conference on Cycles: Records of climatic cycles in peat deposits.
Carnegie Institution Washington, 55-64. 1929.

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

oil, accumulating in brackish and salt water, on or near ocean shore
conditions.

PALEOBOTANY.—A pine from the Potomac Eocene. Epwarp W.
Brrry, Johns Hopkins University.

The Eocene of Maryland and Virginia comprises an older Aquia
and a younger Nanjemoy formation collectively known as the Pam-
unkey Group, and the best general account of the geology and con-
tained faunas is that by Clark and Martin, published in 1901.? Aside
from undetermined and probably undeterminable drift wood in these
marine beds I know of no terrestrial plants having been recorded from
these deposits except the two nominal varieties of fruits described by
Hollick in the volume above mentioned,’ and referred to the form
genus Carpolhithus without any suggestions as to their probable botan-
ical affinity. These are said to have come from the Woodstock stage,
the uppermost of the two stages into which the Nanjemay formation
was divided. It is these same forms in all probability which were
noted by Ruffin in the last century in one of the earliest American
papers on fossil plants,* since these objects are not of great rarity,
although no one has attempted to discover their botanical affinity.

During the past summer Dr. W. Gardner Lynn of the Johns Hop-
kins University collected an excellently preserved cone of a new spe-
cies of Pinus from an outcrop of the Aquia formation at Belvedere
Beach on the Virginia bank of the Potomac, near the type locality
of the Aquia formation. This may be appropriately named Pinus
lynni n. sp. and described as far as the material permits as follows.

Pinus lynni n. sp. 7
Fig. 1

Cone thoroughly lignified and much compressed, somewhat macerated at
both the apex and base. The part preserved measures 9.5 centimeters in
length, 3.5 centimeters in width, and about 1.5 centimeters in thickness, so
that in life it was relatively slender. That it was mature is indicated by the
fact that it must have been shed or blown from the parent tree and was suf-
ficiently dried to have been buoyant enough to have been floated into this
marine basin of sedimentation. The faint impression of the seeds on the cone
scales and the absence of any traces of seeds also indicates that these had
already been shed. Scales triangular in profile, flat basally and somewhat
thickened distad, the rhomboidal face being about 1.2 to 1.5 centimeters
wide by 7 or 8 millimeters high with a prominent central transverse boss or

1 Received Dec. 16, 1933.

2 CLARK, W. B., and Martin, G. C. Md. Geol. Survey, Eocene, 1901.
3 Houuick, A. Idem, p. 258, pl. 64, figs. 11, 12.

4 RuFFIN, EpmMuND. Amer. Journ. Sci. 9: 127-129. 1850.

APRIL 15, 1934 BERRY: POTOMAC EOCENE 183

Fig. 1. Pinus lynni Berry X1. Eocene, Belvedere Beach, Va.

umbo crowned with a central conical point, which does not appear to have
been extended, but may have been abraded before fossilization.

Among the cones of existing North American species, this Eocene form
shows resemblances in the size and proportions of the cone as a whole and
of the individual cone scales to the three southeastern species Pinus taeda
Linné, Pinus elliottii Engelmann, and Pinus caribaea Morelet. I suppose
that too much reliance cannot be placed on resemblances of what, after all,
are superficial features, but I give them for what they may be worth. That
these resemblances are really objective is indicated by the fact that if the
specimen had not actually been dug out of Aqui sediments I should have re-
garded it of Pleistocene age in spite of the fact that the lignification is more
advanced than is usual in material of Pleistocene age.

Although Pinus is a reasonably ancient geological type and characteristic
cones are found in this region in the late Lower Cretaceous (Patapsco forma-
tion) as well as in corresponding horizons in Europe, none have been en-
countered in the middle Atlantic states in the long interval between the Up-
per Cretaceous and the Pleistocene.

Pinus is, of course, present in western North America and on the other
north temperate continents during the Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene, but
is usually represented by woods or impressions of the foliage and actual
cones are relatively rare.

Comparisons with described fossil cones afford nothing of pertinent inter-
est. I assume, from the character of the cone scales and the resemblance to
the existing species mentioned above that the present fossil belongs in the
Pitch pine section of the genus.

The present occurrence is of great interest as it gives a hint at least of the
character of the vegetation which clothed the shores of this region in early
Kocene time, its essentially temperate character and the contrast which it
suggests between this region and that of the shores of the Mississippi Gulf
embayment where the very extensive known flora contained so many im-
migrants from more southern latitudes.®

® Berry, E. W. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 156. 1930.

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

PALEOBOTANY.—Phocene in the Cuenca Basin of Ecuador. Ep-
WARD W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

In 1932 Dr. George Sheppard of Guayaquil, Ecuador, transmitted
to the U. 8. National Museum, a small collection of freshwater in-
vertebrates from two localities near the towns of Biblian and Paccha
in the Cuenca Basin of southern Ecuador.

This was described by Marshall and Bowles? who enumerated 3
gastropods and 2 lamellibranchs—all new, which suggested compari-
sons with the so-called Pebas molluscan fauna from eastern Peru? of
probably Pliocene age.

Recently I received from Dr. Roy E. Dickerson, Chief Geologist of
the Atlantic Refining Company, two small collections which he made
in the Cuenca Basin of Ecuador in 1927. These, although small, are
of considerable interest. The first of these comes from an outcrop on
the road from Biblian to Cuenca in the Azogues valley, where there
is a good exposure of what Wolf many years ago noticed and referred
to as ‘‘Arsenisca de Azogues.’’? The exact locality is along the Biblian-
Cuenca road on the right side of the Rio Azogues, 16 kilometers south
of the town of Biblian and 3 or 4 kilometers above the juncture of the
southerly flowing Rio Azogues with the northerly flowing Rio Gualua-
bamba to form the easterly flowing Rio Paute.

The second locality is 3.1 kilometers southeast of Biblian in the
Azogues valley and on the left side of the valley. The material from
the latter locality is a compact, somewhat bituminous, neutral gray
(K in Goldman and Merwin’s color chart for sediments) shale which
has the appearance of being a devitrified volcanic ash. No tests have
been made to determine whether or not it is a true bentonite. I have
not found any certainly determined plant fragments in this shale,
but it does contain numerous cyprinodont fish scales, one of which is
figured in the present paper. One of these is shown in Fig. | and is
seen to be nearly circular with concentric growth lines and the usual
longitudinal grooves on the anterior half. It is typically cycloid and
may represent the same species of fish as that described by White
(see infra) from the Loja Basin.

The material from the southernmost locality, first mentioned above
is of two sorts—a whitish or light gray paper shale with plant remains

1 Received Dec. 16, 1933.

2 MarsHALt, W. B., and Bowtss, E. O. New freshwater Mollusks from Ecuador.
U.S. Natl. Mus. Proc. 82: art. 5. 1932.

3 For a summary of the literature on Pebas see GARDNER, J. A. Tuts JOURNAL 17:
505-509. 1927. eo

4Wot.r, T. Viajes cientificos por la Republica del Ecuador-Relacion de un viaje
geognostico por la Provincia del Azuay, pp. 55-56. 1879.

APRIL 15, 1934 BERRY: PLIOCENE IN ECUADOR 185

and a slightly darker and more silty material with molluscan remains,
which latter have caused more or less calcareous cementation.

The molluscan remains comprise a single specimen, doubtfully
identified with Potamolithoides biblianus Marshall,*® and a large num-
ber of specimens of a freshwater gastropod, which Mr. Marshall

Fig. 1. Cyprinodont fish scale.
Fig.2. Leaflet of Macrolobium tenurfolium Englehardt.

states (letter of November 25, 1933) represents a new genus resem-
bling Gyrotonia and other Streptomatidae of the southern United
States. The paper shales contain fish-scales like those from the previ-
ous locality and many fragmentary impressions of plants. Only one
of these is sufficiently complete to permit of identification and this
proves to be a leaflet of Macrolobium tenurfolium Engelhardt® de-
scribed originally from Loja, Ecuador. This specimen is shown in
Fig. 2. In this connection it is pertinent to call attention to the small
eyprinodont fish described by White’ from the Loja deposits as Carri-
onellus diumortinus gen. et sp. nov. The present scales are somewhat
larger than White had, but he mentions one specimen which indicated
a fish twice the size of his complete specimens.

I discussed the Loja flora in 1925 and concluded that it represented
a late Tertiary, and very probably a Pliocene assemblage, preserved
in water laid sediments, largely volcanic ashes and at a lower altitude
than that at which its existing representatives are now found.’ More

5 MaRSHALL and Bowes. Op. cit. p. 4, pl. 1, figs. 1-3.

§ ENGELHARDT, H. Abb. Senck. Naturf. Gesell., Bd. 19: 20, pl. 2, fig. 17. 1895.

7 Waits, E.I. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 9, 20: 519-522. 1927.

8’ Berry, E. W. Johns Hopkins University Studies in Geology No. 10: 79-136,
2 figs., 6 pls. 1929.

186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

recently through the kind cooperation of Professor Clodoveo Carrion
of Loja I have received material from a total of 18 localities in the
Loja Basin scattered from the nudo of Cajanuma at the southern end
to a locality 6 kilometers north of Loja.

Similar late Tertiary deposits have a considerable areal extent in
the tributary valleys of the Rio Catamayo east and south of the town
of Malacatos which is 27 kilometers south of the town of Loja. Engel-
hardt, in the paper already cited, recorded similar plant-bearing ma-
terial from Tablayacu in the valley of the Rio Jubones, north of the
nudo of Acayana.

The present occurrences in the Cuenca Basin demonstrate the pres-
ence of similar continental deposits a considerable distance farther
north than was hitherto known, so that now we have actual records
of the presence of such deposits over a distance of at least 170 kilo-
meters from Biblian on the north to Malacatos on the south. Whether
all these represent the reworked remnants of a single great volcanic
eruption in Pliocene times and whether the resulting sediments once
formed a continuous deposit is not known. Some of the deposits in the
Loja basin are horizontal and in any event were formerly more exten-
sive than they are now. All are undoubtedly of approximately the
same age. The fossil plants in the Loja basin occur at altitudes be-
tween 7000 and 7300 ft., those in the Cuenca basin at an altitude of
about 8000 ft. Both are now in the temperate altitudinal zone, where-
as the fossil plants are mostly meosphytic types of the tropics and
indicate not only a much lower altitude at the time they were living,
but also a better distributed rainfall than that of the present in the
Cuenca and Loja basins. 7

In considering the correlation of these inter-Andean deposits with
those of Pebas in eastern Peru, attention should be called to the Plio-
cene fossil plants which have been described from the Rio Aguaytia
in eastern Peru from beds which are probably a part of the same
formation as those containing the so-called Pebas molluscan fuana,
since apparently malacologists never read geological or paleobotanical
papers. This small but exceedingly interesting flora® seems clearly to
be of Pliocene age and contains several species which are also present
in the Loja Basin.

° Berry, E. W. Johns Hopkins University Studies in Geology No. 6: 163-182,
pls. 1, 2. 1925.

APRIL 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 187

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting held
on January 16, 1934, elected the following officers for the ensuing year:
President, MattHew W. STIRLING; Vice-president, FRANK H. H. RoBERtTs,
JR.; Secretary, FRANK M. SurzuER; Treasurer, Henry B. Couns, JR.;
Vice-President of the Washington Academy of Sciences, MattHEw W. STIR-
LING; Members of the Board of Managers, BIREN BONNERJEA, GEORGE 8.
Duncan, Herpert W. KrirGer, WILLIAM DUNCAN STRONG.

The following is a report of the membership and activities of the Society
since the annual meeting held on January 17, 1933.

Membership:

IL juice san eran NaS 5 Say Soe Ae es eA ac Sie eT en 3
IGG RTITE TINDER tre ee tees Se eg a uc dees ta 46
INSSOCTALERIFIGIM CE Stas ret eens aerate as cc ees iae Miutetesape es 6
FLOMONALVRINeT DEES .ayets is See eke Cis els s eueitus Sie mee evelacs bs 8 Pap
Corresponding members..... PERE RG TeON ee APA ee oe ul the 22
Total 99

Deceased:
INGLIVG STM CIM DCIS 21s taa eee Nie os hao cae RRR RIN lee Sata 1
FLOMOT ALVIN EMA CIS. ails crsr a cionereotia eae kere ace ows ote 1
Total 2

Resigned:
ING TINE EILOTO DEES hier, tities easier tiue Castine i gee etd eee 3
INSSOCIATOEEN OID ENS ou teres ran cg Re Gee RISEN ee eats Ue ee doeata 3
Total 2 6
INewalemibensreNetivienc. uo cea ore tee ena at kins ceciase habe Sees 2

The Society lost through death the following members: Honorary: Prof.
W. H. Hotmess, one of the founders of the Society and a past president;
active: Captain RoBprertT R. BENNETT.

Members elected during the year were: Mrs. MarGaret WELPLEY and
the Honorable Dr. Pepro M. Arcaya, Minister of Venezuela.

The financial statement (Treasurer’s report) is as follows:

Funds invested in Perpetual Building Ass’n...................... $1114.06
21 shares Washington Sanitary Improvement Co., par value $10
(ETE SIDE IES sig: Bee or RR NOR EERO I Ci ES Re grog ah are ae ee ter 210.00
2 shares Washington Sanitary Housing Co., par value $100 per
SORIA C RPM rere as ee ea EPC iit cS Mente oe Miche buries Ge aelie ve Soa aME oar 200 .00
CoESLD ND LOE AUR ba 3 Bis Sp nO rec ur eg REpRea ae et eC RS he a 246 .04
TOUEUIAS easih's G UREN UN ce ROE ALA. ded tS aa gee en ce oer a $1770.10
Bills outstanding:
To American Anthropological Ass’n........ $60 .00
ROMO ATCT ieee ce 6 RRS Sone eT adh yk Rasraiee 3.75
MnO Pale emeens e eee. a rea aee ees eke coo $63.75 63.75
ING tals allan Cemetery oy es eee Pitas oe ato hase Sie aphice collector Guat $1706.35

Papers presented before regular meetings of the Society were as follows:

January 17, 1933, 648rd regular meeting, The probable route of DeSoto
through the Southeastern States, by Dr. Joun R. Swanton, ethnologist, Bu-
reau of American Ethnology.

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

February 21, 1933, 644th regular meeting, Folk-lore in some languages of
northern India, by Dr. B1IrEN BoNnNERJEA of the Foreign Mission School,
Catholic University.

March 21, 1933, 645th regular meeting, Dazly life of the James Bay Cree,
by Dr. Joun M. Cooper, Catholic University of America.

April 18, 1933, 646th regular meeting, The cultures of Stone Age Man in
the Old World, by L. LORNE WEDLOCK.

October 17, 1933, 647th regular meeting, Notes on southeastern aboriginal
history, by Dr. Joun R. Swanton, ethnologist, Bureau of American Eth-
nology.

November 21, 1933, 648th regular meeting, Religion of the eastern Cree,
by Dr. Jonn M. Coopnr, Catholic University of America.

The regular December meeting was cancelled by the Board of Managers.

All regular meetings were held in room 43 of the new National Museum.

FraNnK H. H. Rosurts J.R Secretary.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
506TH MEETING

The 506th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the
Cosmos Club, Oct. 25, 1933, President C. N. FENN=ER presiding.

Informal communication. —W. H. BrRapL&y presented graphs showing the
existence of a 10 year cycle in the growth rings of silicified coniferous wood
from the upper part of the Green River formation (Eocene) of Wyoming.
It seems probable that this cyclic growth is to be correlated with the cycle
of sun spot numbers though it may well have been modified by other factors.

Discussed by Mr. F. E. Matruss.

Program: Cuas. B. Hunt: Tertiary structural history of parts of north-
western New Mexico.—The structural deformation of the southern San Juan
Basin, New Mexico, is closely related to important nearby uplifts. These up-
lifts are: The Zuni Mountains, an asymmetric anticline with steep west
flank; Mesa Lucero, a broad gentle dome abruptly faulted down on the east
side; Sandia Mountain, a block mountain, tilted east and downfaulted on
the west: and the Nacimiento Range, an asymmetric anticline with local
reverse faulting along the steep west flank.

Several groups of rocks in the region contribute to determining the se-
quence and age of the deformation. The earliest are Cretaceous sedimentary
formations which comprise most of the surface rocks. The porphyritic lavas
erupted by the Mount Taylor volcano overlie the northward tilted and
folded Cretaceous, and were followed slightly later by sheet basalts erupted
on erosion surfaces around Mount Taylor. The fluviatile Santa Fe formation
of this region was apparently deposited in the topographic depression that
resulted from the down faulting of the graben between Mesa Lucero and
Sandia Mountain. The deepest part of the depression was probably near the
present Rio Grande, and successively younger beds overlapped the sides of
the subsiding trough. Random collections of vertebrate fossils indicate late
Miocene and Pliocene age, but the Santa Fe locally overlaps erosion surfaces
only 100 feet above arroyo bottoms and only 50 feet above flood plains in
which the arroyos are incised. Accordingly, some of the youngest Santa Fe
beds may be younger than Pliocene. The sheet basalts around Mount Tay-

APRIL 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 189

lor seem to be about the same age as the lower part of the Santa Fe, and the
Mount Taylor eruptions are therefore probably middle or late Miocene.

The deposition of the Santa Fe followed all except the very latest block
faulting in the graben. The faulting had therefore mostly taken place before
late Miocene but continued into the Pliocene. The northward tilting and
associated folding of the southern San Juan Basin involved the early Eocene
Wasatch formation but had occurred before the eruptions of Mount Taylor.
The deformation was produced by the uplifts of the Zuni and Lucero regions
which can, therefore, be limited as post-early Eocene and pre-late Miocene.
There is stratigraphic evidence that Sandia Mountain was formed contem-
poraneously with the graben faulting. The Santa Fe is involved in the latest
movements at the north base of the mountain the same as farther east.

The Nacimiento uplift is post-early Eocene for the Wasatch is turned up
steeply along the west flank. The presence along the range of undisturbed
erosion surfaces at roughly the same elevation above present drainage as the
basalt-covered surfaces around Mount Taylor indicates that the Nacimiento
Range is pre-basalt in age. Renick has reported that the Santa Fe is involved
in the Nacimiento uplift. There is a transition zone a few miles wide at the
south tip of the uplift and north edge of the graben, and late movements of
block faulting in this transition zone involve the Santa Fe as they do farther
south in the graben. But so far as now known the Santa Fe is not involved in
the uplifting. The fact that the Santa Fe locally rests on only slightly dis-
turbed erosion surfaces sloping from the Nacimiento is confirmatory evi-
dence that the uplift is pre-Santa Fe. Its date therefore is probably post-
early Eocene and pre-late Miocene. (A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Snars, G. R. MANSFIELD, TRASK, RuBEy, and
C.S. Ross.

C. P. Ross and Cuarues Miuton: Stratigraphic correlation by heavy min-
erals in Paleozoic beds in Idaho.—In order to assist in the stratigraphic corre-
lation of the different Paleozoic formations in the Bay Horse region, Idaho,
a study was made of the heavy mineral content of 46 specimens from this
and neighboring areas. The specimens were not collected with this purpose
in mind and a number were unsuited to it. All the rocks studied were thor-
oughly cemented, largely recrystallized and metamorphosed to a greater or
less extent. Some had undergone intense contact metamorphism. Many
contained abundant flaky carbonaceous and argillaceous material. In spite
of these disadvantages the results are sufficiently distinctive and consistent
to have suggestive value in correlation. The principal question was as to the
correlation of certain contact metamorphosed beds in the western part of the
Bayhorse region. Eliminating from consideration minerals of probable syn-
genetic origin, the detrital heavy minerals in these beds accord closely with
those in beds of known Carboniferous age in the Hailey quadrangle and are
quite different from the assemblages of detrital heavy minerals found in
any of the older rocks studied. This fact accords with other evidence and the
conclusion is regarded with confidence. Other distinctions can be made on
the basis of differences in the assemblages obtained from different rocks but
these are somewhat less positive.

In general, the results of the study indicate that even in sedimentary
rocks poorly adapted to it by reason of induration and metamorphism the
investigation of the content of detrital heavy minerals may yield information
of value. (A uthors’ abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. FENNER and FERGUSON.

190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

EUGENE CALLAGHAN: Some aspects of the geology of the Cascade Range in
Oregon.—The results of field work in the Cascade Range south of Mount
Hood during two seasons—one of which was under the direction of Prof.
A. F. Buddington—as well as the data published by other workers, permit
a few generalizations concerning some of the geological features of this large
region of volcanic rocks. In a certain sense the Cascade Range is the dis-
sected western margin of the large plateau-like area of dominantly volcanic
rocks in the northwestern part of the United States. This is particularly
true of the range in California and in the southernmost part of Oregon, but
farther north topographic features, distribution of rock types, and linear ele-
ments appear which distinguish the Cascade Range from adjacent physical
divisions.

For the geologic description it is convenient to divide the range south
of Mount Hood into two parts, to which the terms Western Cascades and
High Cascades are applied. This is largely on the basis of a pronounced un-
conformity in the stratigraphic sequence of lavas and consequent topograph-
ic differences. The High Cascades is the easternmost belt and is charac-
terized by rolling upland, partly or wholly preserved volcanic surfaces, and
volcanic cones in various states of preservation. The Western Cascades is
characterized by deep dissection, lack of preserved uplands, and long ridges
sloping toward the major drainage lines.

The rocks of the High Cascades are greatly varied, but the western mar-
gin of the area is composed chiefly of olivine basalt which extends in long
tongues down valleys in the Western Cascades. The large cones appear
to consist chiefly of hypersthene andesite. The lower limit of age of the rocks
of the High Cascades is not known, but they are believed to be largely of
Pliocene and Pleistocene age. They have not been deformed appreciably.

The older rocks of the Western Cascades are divided into two groups on
the basis of dominant rock type and associated structural features. One
group is characterized by black glass-bearing lavas which are chiefly andes-
ites but contain some basalt. These occur in two areas along the western
margin of the Western Cascades—one in the Rogue River Valley area and
the other along the east side of the Willamette Valley. In most places these
rocks dip to the east or northeast. Those in the Rogue River area range in
age from Eocene to middle Miocene. The second group occupies the re-
mainder of the Western Cascades and is characterized by labradorite andes-
ite, but contains many other varieties. Because these flows are heterogene-
ous, deformation structures cannot be readily ascertained but both warp-
ing and faulting have been noted. These rocks are younger than most of
the black lavas but are believed to be largely of Miocene age.

Linear elements of the Cascades include the elongate outline of the range
as a whole; a line of quicksilver deposits on the western margin between
Black Butte and Rogue River; a line of complex sulphide mineral deposits
which coincide for the greater part of its length with a line of stocks, dikes,
and plugs of porphyritic diorite and granodiorite extending almost through
the center of the Western Cascades; and the belt of volcanic cones in various
states of preservation extending throughout the High Cascades.

The ten mineralized areas have a recorded production of approximately
$1,000,000, almost entirely in gold from the oxidized portions of sulphide
veins. In the unoxidized condition these veins are characterized by sphaler-
ite, galena, chalcopyrite, and pyrite. Tetrahedrite, bournonite, and arseno-
pyrite occur in some veins. Quartz is the chief gangue mineral, but many

APRIL 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 191

others occur—including johannsenite, a new manganese mineral described
by Mr. Schaller. Some evidence of areal zoning of mineralization was found.
(Author’s abstract.)

507TH MEETING

The 507th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the
Cosmos Club, Nov. 8, 1933, President C. N. FENNER presiding.

Informal communications.—PARKER TRASK reported on two publications
of the results of the German Atlantic Expedition of the Meteor in 1925 to
1927. The expedition studied all features of the Atlantic Ocean between
latitudes 20° N. to 60° 8. The publications of the Expedition are expected
to provide the greatest advance in oceanography since the Challenger Ex-
pedition. One of the reports by H. Wattenberg is a comprehensive treatise
on the calcium carbonate and carbon dioxide content of the sea water. It
contains many tables relating to the factors influencing the solubilities of
these substances in the sea water. Maps are presented to show that the
saturation of the surface water with calcium carbonate increases from 100
per cent in the southern part of the South Atlantic to 150 per cent at the
equator. The water below a depth of 100 fathoms is reported to be between
90 and 100 per cent saturated with calcium carbonate. The influence of boron
is ignored in the computation of these figures. If they are corrected for boron,
they become about 50 per cent greater for surface water, but not much
greater for subsurface water which has a lower pH. The second report by
Wiist discusses the circulation of the bottom water. It contains many tables
and maps among which is one emphasizing the northward drift of Antarctic
water at the bottom of the Atlantic.

Discussed by Mr. BRADLEY.

A. R. Barwick exhibited a specimen of Cuculea gigantea from the lower
Eocene Aquia formation collected at Fort Washington which contained a
pearl-like growth.

Program: CHARLES B. READ and RoLanp W. Brown: Genus Tempskya
in western North America.—The fossil ferns called Tempskya differ from the
common modern ferns in having a trunk known as a “false stem.’ EXxter-
nally these fossils have the appearance of petrified palm trunks, but trans-
verse sections of well-preserved specimens reveal their true fern nature.
Such sections usually show a number of horseshoe-shaped stems embedded in
a mass of roots, the latter being fairly uniform in size, circular in cross-sec-
tion, and smaller than the stems.

The first American Tempskya came from the Patapsco formation of Mary-
land and was called Tempskya whitei by Berry in 1911. In 1924, A. C. Seward
described a fine specimen collected from sediments of Colorado age in Mon-
tana and called it Tempskya knowltoni. During the past few years field work
in southeastern Idaho, west-central Wyoming, and eastern Utah has resulted
in the collection of much new material which it has been the privilege of the
authors to study. Although the authors are not ready to publish the details
of this study, enough information has been accumulated to show that these
collections contain at least two new species of Tempskya. Anatomical details
throw new light on the habits and affinities of the genus. It is becoming ap-
parent that these Tempskyas may be very helpful in the stratigraphic corre-
lation of the Cretaceous deposits containing them. (A uthors’ abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Butts, G. R. MANSFIELD, Mis=r, and GRIGGs.

J. C. Reep: Gravel-filled basins in the Nez Perce National Forest, Idaho.—
The Nez Perce Forest of north central Idaho embraces an area in the Clear-

192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

water Mountains in which are at least half a dozen small basins that contain
auriferous gravel. Three of these, those of Elk, Newsome, and Meadow
Creeks have been examined in some detail. The basins studied range in
length from about 5 to about 10 miles and are about 3 miles wide. Each is
surrounded by a bed-rock divide broken only by the narrow, V-shaped can-
yon of the stream that drains it. Where the basins have not been trenched
during the present erosion cycle, the quiet, meandering streams wandering
through them are entirely out of harmony with their actively eroding por-
tions farther downstream. The sediments in the basins probably once cov-
ered a considerably greater area than at present as is indicated by isolated
patches of gravel on certain interstream divides.

The size and shape of the basins, and their location in a region where the
bed rocks offer about the same resistance to erosion, appear to rule out the
possibility that they were excavated by simple erosion at the heads of cer-
tain streams, whereas farther down their courses, the same streams flowing
over the same kinds of rocks cut narrow gorges. But, the basins do appear to
be at least in part erosional because the floors of the basins extend as benches
well up into the basins’ tributary valleys except those which enter from the
west sides.

The western sides of the basins are straighter and steeper than the others
and in one placer pit, along the western edge of Elk Creek basin, Lindgren
actually observed a vertical fault separating unconsolidated sediments and
gneiss. Large blocks of Columbia lava, more than a square mile in area, have
been let down approximately 1000 feet along a fault that still forms a well-
defined scarp that bounds Meadow Creek basin on the west. The basins ap-
pear to be gravel-covered portions of a pediment-like erosion surface cut
off from their normal outlets by structural movements. This pediment-
like surface was formed below an older somewhat deformed erosion surface
that in this vicinity ranges in altitude between 4500 and 8000 feet above sea
level. (A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Mesgrs. ALDEN and BRADLEY.

H. M. Eakin: An accidental large scale model of diastrophic action.—Levee
building across old clay-filled basins of cutoff lakes in the Mississippi Valley
is frequently complicated by shear failure of the foundation, persistent sub-
sidence of embankment materials, and extensive displacement and deforma-
tion of clay formations adjacent to the growing levee. In 1931 one of these
failures at Ward Lake, near Sherard, Mississippi, was studied in detail
throughout the period of instability.

Immediately following initial failure of the foundation, profiles were run
daily over some 25 ranges at right angles with the levee line and correspond-
ing with the standard 100-foot stations of the location survey. After the first
few days weekly surveys were substituted and these continued until the
levee finally became stable and was topped out.

In addition to recording topographic changes, about 140 borings were
made on three selected ranges to determine final underground distribution
of fill material. Also, observations were made covering phenomena of ex-
pansion and compression; of elevation and subsidence, and horizontal migra-
tion of surface areas, of folding, faulting and mass deformation of the surface
stratum and of upward migration of clay and local emergence of clays and
water at the surface. The old lake bed at this place is about half a mile across.
The original clays are 15 to more than 75 feet deep, and overlie gritty sands
and gravels. The surface clays are oxidized and somewhat toughened down

APRIL 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 193

to lowest water level, some 10 feet below the surface. Below this the deeper
clays are wet, blue, and soft, containing about 45 per cent by weight of wa-
ter.

The first re-adjustment was a general sinking of the faulted-off portion
of the fill from a few inches to about 10 feet on the various ranges, and com-
pensatory uplift along the toe line of the new fill. These movements together
comprised a rotation of an elongated body of fill material and underlying
clay. At the ends of this prism transverse faults appeared, with opposite
differential displacements on the two sides of a relatively undisturbed axis
of rotation.

Filling operations from this time onward concentrated on dumping ma-
terial across the fault line onto the subsiding limb of this rotating prism. The
rotation persisted in this zone throughout subsequent operations. Measure-
ment of subsidence was carried on by crow-foot method until it had a-
mounted to 96 feet and was then discontinued. Total subsidence along
the fault line must have been several hundred feet.

Along the line of initial uplift at the outer margin of the zone of rotation
there appeared, as operations continued, a system of vertical block faults.
The blocks tended at first to spread slightly apart, then all tilted their tops
back toward the levee so that each rested inclined upon its neighbor. The
zone as a whole continued to show tension and spreading. Eventually clays
were faulted upward along certain lines among the blocks and both clays
and water appeared at the surface along these lines.

The next distinctive zone outward from the levee bordering on the zone
of initial uplift and subsequent spread and clay extrusion was that of the
outward limb of the initial uplift feature. This limb moved outward and
slightly upward without notable deformation. It is apparently a neutral
zone of deformative forces, giving a zone of structural integrity. However,
this zone represented a maximum of horizontal movement and a minimum
ratio of vertical to horizontal displacement. This ratio was about 1 to 10,
elevation amounting to 25 feet against horizontal movement of about 250
feet.

Next outside the zone of structural integrity there developed a zone of
compression, manifest at first in simple flexures of the crust that gradually
became overturned folds and thrust faults. Both overthrusts and under-
thrusts developed, but overthrusting was predominant. Several grabens
developed in which a sinking strip of land was overridden from both sides
and finally buried completely. This zone of compression widened by develop-
ment of new flexures at its outer margin. Each flexure went through about
the same history of overturning, faulting, over riding to a position of stability
on the succeeding block and then moving outward with the latter in about
the same relative position.

Outward beyond the last flexure of the zone of compression was a final
zone of disturbance, characterized by simple uplift receding from a maximum
of 2 to 4 feet at the toe of the flexure to zero out 150 to 200 feet beyond.

Beneath the tilting blocks and emergent masses of clay in the zone of
tension and beneath the deformed surface member in the zone of compres-
sion the clays penetrated by borings showed a lack of original structure and
cohesion, clearly due to flowage. In the zone of compression this condition .
was characteristic of the clays from about 10 to 20 feet below the surface.
At the margin of the zone of rotation this condition was found under fill
at various depths, down to about 55 feet.

194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

It is plain that the general phenomenon is energized by the head of new
fill placed in the embankment. This is supportable up to a certain intensity
by cohesion and friction in the underlying and adjacent clays, part of the
load being transmitted to adjacent lands by the structural strength of the
upper member of the clays. Shearing stress is thus at zero under the central
part of the fill and at maxima near its margins. The development of actual
shear at one or the other of the margins of new fill results in rotational sub-
sidence and displacement of underlying clay. Subsurface currents in the
clay are the obvious explanation of the rotation of the fault blocks in the
zone of initial uplift and tension; the dragging of strips of land over and
under each other in the zone of compression and the elevation of the land
surface in the outer zone of simple uplift.

The horizontal extent of subsurface flowage naturally has exceeded surface
movements in all situations. Where surface migration has amounted to 250
feet, the increment in cross-section area of lands of the outward zones indi-
cates at least 250 feet additional movement of the underflowing sheet of
clay.

The phenomena of the Ward Lake occurrence are generally characteristic
of similar occurrences at many other old lake sites in the Valley. This order-
liness suggests that the general phenomenon is controlled by definite and
perhaps broadly applicable mechanical laws. If these laws are sufficiently
general to apply to diastrophic action on a continental scale it would appear
that we should be able to identify in the geologic structures of our mountain
systems the same general zones of differential forces and movements,
namely: 1. A zone of subsidence, perhaps manifest as an off shore deep, or
inland graben generally parallel with the shore line or mountain axis. 2. A
zone of moderate uplift, expansion, intrusion and extrusion; 3. A zone of
moderate deformation and absence of extensive igneous members; 4. A zone
of compressional folding and faulting with marked overthrusting, under-
thrusting and local grabens, diminishing to overturned folds and finally to
simple step folds; 5. A plateau region of simple structure, falling off in eleva-
tion approximately with the dip of the youngest beds to finally merge with
an undisturbed plain. (A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. C. W. Wricut, Cookn, G. R. MANSFIELD, J. C.
Reep, Rusery, ALDEN, HENDRICKS, BARWicK, Butts, BRown, TRASK,
BRADLEY, and HEWETT.

o08TH MEETING

The 508th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club November
22, 1933, President C. N. FENNER presiding.

Program: C. H. DANE and W. G. Pierce: Fossil sink-holes in Cretaceous
beds of Prowers County, Colorado.—In a small area in sec. 6, T. 22 8., R. 44
W., Prowers County, Colorado, the exposed Upper Cretaceous rocks record
the former presence of three sink-holes, between 100 and 200 feet in diameter
and from 150 to 250 feet apart. Collapsed and brecciated masses of the
Smoky Hill marl member of the Niobrara formation occur in the central _
parts of two of the subsidence areas and collapsed masses of the Hays lime-
stone member of the Niobrara occur in all three. These collapsed masses are
in contact with the upper part of the Carlile shale, which normally underlies
the Niobrara formation, and is about 200 feet thick. Some of the collapsed

' filling has thus dropped 65 feet,—the thickness of the Hays limestone. A

normal fault which may have preceded or accompanied the subsidences ex-
tends northward between them. It has a downthrow of perhaps 20 feet to
the west.

APRIL 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 195

The sink-holes are attributed to removal of soluble material from the
Greenhorn limestone, which underlies the Carlile shale, or possibly to re-
moval of soluble salt and gypsum from Permian rocks at greater depths,
with subsequent natural stoping upward through the overlying rocks. The
solution may have been first localized and aided by downward water circu-
lation along the small fault.

The time of collapse can not be closely dated. It took place before the im-
mediately superjacent topography was developed, for the Smoky Hill marl
does not now crop out within two miles of the sink-holes, from which it has
evidently been stripped back by erosion. The collapse probably occurred at
some time after the irregular folding and faulting that has in places in
western Kansas and eastern Colorado deformed the Tertiary sediments
which form the surface of most of the High Plains. This deformation should
locally, in faulted areas, have allowed downward percolation of ground
water to soluble horizons. (A uthors’ abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Ricz, Misrer, THompson, Turner, McKwnicut,
JOHNSTON, and MEINZER.

Puitip B. Kine: The Cretaceous of West Texas.—Mesozoic deposition be-
gan in trans-Pecos Texas in a geosyncline whose trend cut across that of
older Paleozoic structural lines. In this area, which lies in the western part
of trans-Pecos Texas, a great thickness of sandstone and finer clastic sedi-
ments was laid down in late Jurassic and early Cretaceous time. This was
followed by the deposition of a great mass of limestone in the geosyncline,
but to the northeast the beds of equivalent age are thinner, and change first
to a neritic marly facies, and then to a sandy marginal facies that overlapped
the Paleozoic rocks. The form and dimensions of the limestone mass are
comparable to the early Paleozoic limestones of the southern Applachian
geosyncline. The limestones are followed by Upper Cretaceous marine shaly
beds which pass upward, east of the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous geo-
synclinal area, into continental beds with an increasing amount of volcanic
material toward the top. That the volcanic material is indicative of the be-
ginning of a period of diastrophism is suggested by its association with con-
glomerates which contain fragments of the older rocks. The center of ac-
tivity must have been to the west, however, for the well rounded pebbles
have probably traveled a great distance from their source. Finally, the
diastrophic movement culminated at the end of Cretaceous deposition, and
the rocks northeast of the geosyncline were broadly folded and deeply
eroded. In early Tertiary time, lavas were spread widely over the eroded
rocks east of the geosyncline, and in places also overlapped the strongly
folded rocks of the geosynclinal area. (A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Szars, Huss, and STEPHENSON.

F. KE. Martrues: Wind-faceted pebbles from the glacial drift of Nantucket.—
A series of pebbles was exhibited showing successive stages in the production
of faceted forms by sand blast action—beginning with a pebble having one
incipient facet, and leading up to typical ‘‘dreikanters’” and other multi-
faceted forms. Criteria were presented for distinguishing wind-cut facets
from stream-cut, glacial, and joint facets. The distinctive feature of all
wind-cut facets is the sharp, clean cut terminal edge at the leeward border.
The windward border is commonly rounded, often grooved. Facets cut on
convexly curved pebbles tend to become nearly plane, sometimes slightly
concave. On multifaceted pebbles that have had a long and varied eolian
history nearly all the facets may be bounded by sharp edges in consequence
of the progressive encroachment of new facets on old ones.

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

Stream-cut and glacial facets seldom have sharp, clean edges, as the
fluvial and glacial processes work rudely, each in its own way. Joint facets
as a rule have sharp edges, but these are in detail ragged and splintery.
Their surfaces, though approximately plane, likewise are in detail rough and
broken by minute scarps, scales, and other irregularities.

High polish is not an invariable characteristic of wind-faceted pebbles.
Many of the most beautifully faceted pebbles on Nantucket, although well
preserved, have a dull, mat finish. This is due, probably, to their having been
cut by coarse sand driven by violent gales. A finer abrasive, actuated by
moderate winds, would doubtless have given them a more perfect, gleaming
polish.

Wind-faceted pebbles have been found in the glacial deposits of Nan-
tucket, Martha’s Vineyard, and neighboring portions of the main land by
several observers, notably by Shaler, Gulliver, W. M. Davis, Woodworth,
and Bryan, yet there is still uncertainty as to the time when the sand blast
action prevailed. Wind-cut pebbles abound in the hummocky kame moraine
that covers a large part of Nantucket, but that deposit, having been much
disturbed by the overriding ice, affords no satisfactory clew to the period of
eolian activity. Much clearer is the evidence presented by the Squam Head
bluff. It shows the wind-cut pebbles in place, in thin layers of gravel associ-
ated with beds of compact sand that are gently flexed and only locally con-
torted. These beds, 30 feet in aggregate thickness, are believed to form part
of an outwash apron that was laid down in front of the continental ice
sheet. They rest on the eroded surface of a body of old, blue gray till, and are
capped by a thin layer of later, buff colored till, in all probability of Wis-
consin age.

Now it is a notable fact that the pebbles in the sandy beds have the same
fresh, almost unweathered appearance as those in the overlying till. It seems
entirely probable, therefore, that the two deposits are essentially contem-
poraneous. Indeed, the interpretation that seems best to fit the facts is that
the sandy beds were deposited in front of the advancing Wisconsin ice sheet
and ultimately were overridden by it.

All the evidence tends to show that the outwash apron was laid down sub-
aerially—the ocean level at that time being lowered presumably by reason
of the storage of water in the ice sheets on the continents. It may be con-
cluded, therefore, that the sandblast action which shaped the pebbles took
place on the bare surface of the outwash plain that stretched in front of the
Wisconsin ice sheet while that ice sheet was approaching its maximum ex-
tension. Perhaps it was effected by violent anticyclonal winds that were
generated over the expanse of ice. (Author’s abstract.)

_ Discussed by Messrs. ALDEN, F. G. WELLS, THOMPSON, STEPHENSON, and
ENNER.

509TH MEETING

The 509th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club December
13, 1933, President C. N. Frennur presiding. Vice-President H. G. FER-
GusON took the chair during the presentation of the presidential address:
Some magmatic problems.

41ST ANNUAL MEETING
The 41st annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club after the adjourn-

ment of the 509th regular meeting, President C. N. FENNER presiding. The
annual report of the Secretaries was read. The treasurer presented his annual

APRIL 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 197

report showing an excess of assets over liabilities of $1,336.86 on December
13, 1933. The auditing committee reported that books of the Treasurer were
correct.

The results of the balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as fol-
lows: President: H. G. Frercuson; Vice-Presidents: M. I. GotpMAN and
W. T. ScHauuer; Treasurer: C. WytHEe Cooxs; Secretaries: T. B. Nouan
and W. D. Jounston Jr.; Members-at-large of the Council: G. A. Cooprr,
L. W. Currizr, W. W. Rusey, T. STADNICHENKO, and G. TUNELL. Nominee
for Vice-President of the Washington Academy of Sciences representing the
Geological Society: C. N. FENNER.

W. H. Brapuey and T. B. Nouan, Secretaries.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service

NOTES

New deal in forestry.—Privately owned forest lands are to be integrated
with the national program for conservation and re-growth of forests, ac-
cording to the recommendations of a conference held under the chairmanship
of Secretary of Agriculture Wautuacr. This conference brought together
representatives of the U.S. Forest Service and other public agencies charged
with the care of forest lands, several groups of professional foresters, the
U. 8. Chamber of Commerce, and the lumber and timber, pulp and paper,
and naval stores industries. Their report may well be looked upon as almost
an Emancipation Proclamation for the industries dependent upon forests.

“Sustained yield forest management’? sums up in four words the New
deal for American forests; the abandonment of forests as mines to be ex-
hausted, the discovery of forests as “farms” to be intelligently cultivated.

The end sought, though stateable in a single simple phrase, ‘‘sustained
yield,” is not so simply attained. Many problems, some inherent in the na-
ture of forests, some economic, some involving the human equation, must
be solved and their answers reconciled. The conference undertook to do this,
at least in outline, in such a way as to include even the individual farmers’
timber lots, as well as the huge holdings of private lumber companies and the
great state and National forests.

The recommendations of the conference are contained in no less than 46
sections, beginning with the combating of fire, insects, disease, and other
natural forces of destruction, and carrying through to suggested sources of
funds for the prosecution of new lines of research in the forests. Outstanding
suggestions include; consolidation of administration of publicly owned
forests, elimination of unnecessary competition in marketing between public
and private forests, vigorous pursuit of the present policy of adding to pub-
lic forests by purchase of new lands, adjustment of tax burdens on private
forest lands to encourage rational rather than forced marketing, federal or-
ganization of credits, increased protection against fire, establishment of
sound lumber specifications, increased appropriations for administration,
education, and research.

C.W.A. dismissals and science—The gradual closing up of the operation
of the Civil Works Administration, which involves the dismissal of 400,000
employees at the rate of ten per cent a week until May 21, immediately

198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

affects the scientific departments of the government as follows: The Depart-
ment of Agriculture is reduced from 91,147 employees to 48,000; the Fish-
eries Commission from 2,349 to 650; the Bureau of Mines from 446 to 225.
In addition, the Coast and Geodetic Survey must discontinue its supple-
mentary control survey, employing about 15,030 men; the Smithsonian
Institution its archaeological excavations, employing 1,104, in Florida,
North Carolina and other places the one exception being the undertaking in
Shiloh National Park; the Tennessee Valley Authority a large number of the
16,588 men at work on improvement projects; the Interior Department
1,762 men on soil erosion work, and the Public Health Bureau 29,779 men
on malaria control work, 32,010 on rural sanitation, and 6,572 sealing mines
to stop water acidity in the Ohio Valley. Projects under the Department of
Agriculture which must be stopped include cattle tick eradication, involving
6,000 men; typhus-fever control operated cooperatively with the Public
Health Service, 17,033 men; citrus canker control in Texas, 88; Dutch elm
disease control in several New England states, 1,057; phony peach eradica-
tion, 1,112; potato weevil eradication, 211; spotted fever control, 369;
mosquito pest control, 25,646, and brown-tail moth control, 5000.

National Park Service-—The name, ‘“‘National Park Service,” was re-
instated and applied to the Office of National Parks, Buildings and Reserva-
tions, by an Act of Congress signed by President RoosEvELtT on March 2.
The National Park Service was originally established in 1916 to correlate
federal park administration. Its scope was expanded to include care of
national buildings and reservations as well, by the consolidation of June 10,
1933, and its name changed accordingly. But the convenience and famili-
arity of the older and shorter name, together with a wealth of associations
in the minds of many persons familiar with the excellent progress of the
national parks and monuments during the administrations of the late
STEPHEN T. MatTHeER and of his successor, Horace M. ALBRIGHT, pre-
vailed to bring about its restoration.

The National Park Educational Advisory Board met in Washington,
D. C., on February 26 and 27. The members of the board in attendance were
Dr. H. C. Bumpas, Chairman; Dr. W. W. Artwoop, Dr. W. W. CAMPBELL,
Dr. WALpo G. LELAND, and Dr. FRANK R. OASTLER.

Many important problems relative to educational policy were passed
upon. Of particular importance were reports on historical developments
presented by chief historian VERNE EK. CHATELAIN of the National Park
Service, and a plan outlining museum development in the whole national
park system presented by AnsreL F. Haut, chief of the Field Division of
Education and Forestry of the National Park Service.

Bureau of Plant Industry —The Bureau of Plant Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture, has issued the first in a series of publications
describing types of American varieties of vegetables. This series is intended
to remedy the lack of generally accepted, authentic, and adequate descrip-
tions of vegetables varieties, and to remove the confusion as to just what
characteristics a given variety should possess. The work is based on coopera-
tive studies by the Bureau and certain state experiment stations and is de-
signed to present the consensus of opinion of the seedsmen, vegetable
growers, canners, and horticulturists who are best qualified to judge what
type should be established as a standard. The publication recently issued de-
scribes the nine principal varieties of tomatoes and contains numerous illus-

APRIL 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 199

trations, some of them in color, showing plants and fruits. Similar works on
cabbage and peas are in press, and others are in preparation.

World veterinary congress.—President RoosEvsE.T, Secretary of Agricul-
ture WALLACE, and a number of officers of the U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture will cooperate with other American scientists as hosts to the Twelfth
International Veterinary Congress, which will meet at the Waldorf-Astoria
Hotel in New York, August 13 to 18. This is the first time this body has met
in the United States, previous meetings having been held in Europe. The
object of the congress is the advancement of the science and practice of
veterinary medicine and surgery. Besides the presentation of papers on
scientific and practical veterinary questions of world scope, the program
provides for an interchange of opinions and experiences among the dele-
gates.

FRANKLIN D. RoosEvELt, President of the United States, is patron of
the congress and Henry A. Wa.uacs, Secretary of Agriculture, is vice
patron. Prof. Dr. E. Lecuarncus, director of the Bureau of Epizootics,
Paris, France, is president of the permanent committee in charge of arrange-
ments, and Dr. JoHn R. Monunr, chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry,
U. 8. Department of Agriculture, is a vice-president and will present one of
the principal papers. Other Department officials and scientists on the pro-
eram are Dr. W. EK. Corton, Dr. A. EK. Wicgut, Dr. M. Dorset, Dr. M. C.
Hatt, Dr. E. C. Joss, all of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

News BRIEFs

So strong was the Utah earthquake of March 12 that it was registered
on instruments at the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey observatory at
Cheltenham, Md., which are primarily intended for recording of the mag-
netic field of the earth. For ten minutes at the time of the main shock the
magnetic needle wrote a record of the earth tremors and in the afternoon
another shock set them in motion for eight minutes.

A new trap developed by W. D. Rep of the U. 8S. Department of Agri-
culture functions efficiently against the cigarette beetle, one of the most de-
structive enemies of stored tobacco.

The first joint meeting of the Institute of Radio Engineers and the Ameri-
can Section of the International Scientific Radio Union has been announced,
to be held in Washington on April 27.

The Smith-Reed-Russell lecture for March at the School of Medicine,
George Washington University, was given by Dr. JoaN WHEELER, professor
of ophthalmology in Columbia University and director of the ophthalmologi-
eal Institute. Dr. WHEELER spoke on EHxophthalmos.

In a statement issued on February 22, members of President Roosevelt’s
Science Advisory Board strongly condemned the oft-repeated declaration
that ‘science destroys jobs,” asserting that on the contrary research opened
the way to more and pleasanter employment opportunities.

A C.W.A. worker in the Smithsonian Institution library discovered in a
German book printed within twenty years after Columbus’ death a most
unconventional description of the great navigator: it characterized him as
big, brave, and sharp-eyed, and said he had a “‘long, red, freckled face.”’ The
book is now being translated into English.

200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

The third Arthur lecture was given on the evening of February 26 by
Dr. CHARLES G. ABBOT, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Dr. AB-
BoT spoke on How the sun warms the earth.

The discovery of an important center of Maya civilization, bridging a gap
between Old Empire and New Empire cultures, was announced on February
24 by the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

“Heavy water’ accumulates in willow shoots, apparently through differ-
ential evaporation, researches by the late Dr. E>warp W. WaAsHBURN and
his associate Dr. Epcar B. Situ of the National Bureau of Standards,
indicate. Their paper was published in Sczence.

The following radio talks were given under the auspices of Science Service,
over the network of the Columbia Broadcasting System: February 28, Dr.
FRANK Lorimer, Population trends of American groups; March 7, Dr.
Water T. Swineue, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, New crops for the
American Sahara.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Jay N. Daruine of Des Moines, Iowa, has been appointed chief of the
Bureau of Biological Survey, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture. Although he
is known to the public chiefly as one of the outstanding cartoonists of the
world, Mr. Daring has also been for many years an enthusiastic and care-
ful student of wild life and a strong conservationist. PAUL G. REDINGTON,
whom Mr. DaRuine succeeds in office, was transferred at his own request to
the Forest Service on March 1. Previous to his appointment as chief of the
Biological Survey seven years ago, Mr. Repinetron had been for twenty-
three years with the Forest Service.

G. H. Barnes of the Canadian Forest Service, on a three-months’ detail
in Washington, with Francis X. SCHUMACHER of the Branch of Research,
U. S. Forest Service, is making a study of methods of predicting growth in
the uneven-aged spruce forests after partial cutting.

Dr. JouHn C. Merriam, president of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, read a paper on Conservation and evolution in a changing social pro-
gram before a stated meeting of the American Philosophical Society in
Philadelphia on March 2.

Prof. W. H. TwEenHOFEL of the University of Wisconsin, chairman of the
division of geology and geography, National Research Council, has been
elected chairman of the Tri-State Geological Field Conference of Wisconsin,
Iowa, and Illinois.

Dr. WaLTER C. LowpreRMILK of the California Forest Experiment Sta-
tion, Berkeley, has been appointed vice-director of the Soil Erosion Service
of the U.S. Department of the Interior.

Lieut.-Comdr. T. G. W. Serriz, U.S.N., spoke on February 8 before the
Physics Club of the University of Chicago on The physics of free ballooning.

H. H. NinincGe_r, curator of meteorites at the Colorado Museum of Natu-
ral History, spoke before the Cosmos Club on the evening of February 19.

nie

Anthropological So gety. te
se wnt sae AS ihe ak

B, whtw thoi eo) w iw, ye.) 0h) 8) 16%

May 15,1984 No. 5

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ASHINGTON ACADEMY
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JOURNAL

OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 24 May 15, 1934 No. 5

MATHEMATICS.—Flatland: Not a romance but a necessary ex-
pedient.1 O. 8S. Apams, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The Philosophical Society of Washington has been in existence long
enough to have certain well-established customs and traditions. One
of these is that an expiring president may have the right and in fact
has the duty thrust upon him of singing his swan song before passing
into the discard. Another tradition is that this president may have the
privilege of speaking upon any subject he may choose, and without
consulting the all-powerful communications committee. The subject
chosen may be one connected with the work of the speaker or it may
be merely a hobby in which he is especially interested. Before enter-
ing on a discussion of the subject in hand, I shall give a short history
of the way in which my interest in it was aroused.

Immediately after we entered the World War, the subject of map
projections came into great prominence. It was reported that the
maps in the war zone in France were constructed on the Lambert con-
formal conic projection with two standard parallels. At once the Army
and Navy officials were anxious for information about such projec-
tions, how they were computed, how constructed, and what were
their special properties. At a meeting of such officials Major Bowie,
chief of the Division of Geodesy of the Coast and Geodetic Survey,
stated that he had men in his division who knew all about such mat-
ters. The next day he called me into his office and told me it was up
to me to substantiate his statement. As a matter of fact my knowledge
of such subjects was very hazy if not altogether non-existent. How-
ever I immediately set to work consulting such authorities as I could
find who dealt with the subject. I at once found that there was no
adequate discussion of either the Lambert projection or of map pro-
jections in general in existence in the English language. One had to

: Received February 8, 1933. Address of the retiring president, delivered before
the Philosophical Society of Washington, January 6, 1934.

201

202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

consult works in either French or German to get any real grasp of the
subject. I was at once struck with admiration by the skill of Johann
Heinrich Lambert in devising the projection and by the elegance and
generality of the treatment of Gauss and LaGrange. Ever since that
time the general subject of map projections has been one of my hob-
bies and an avocation in which I always have a lively interest.

After getting a clear grasp of the general theory of the projection, |
it was difficult to determine from the meager reports that we had just
what the French were doing in their practical construction of the
maps in France. Mr. Deetz, one of our experienced cartographers,
wrote a publication on the subject of this projection in which I gave
some account of the general theory. With regard to its specific use in
France we had to make some guesses that were later shown to be not
exactly in accordance with the usage in France. It was at this time
that I gave a paper before this society on the subject of the Lambert
projection. Much interest was manifested at that time because it was
a subject of much practical import to those who were destined to take
part in the war.

This then was the occasion of my introduction to the general field
of map projections. From that day to this my interest in this line of
work has remained unfailing and I shall now take it upon myself to
inflict some of my enthusiasm upon you. I shall not however trouble
you with elaborate mathematical formulas, but I shall endeavor to
convey some ideas to you on the subject that may be found of
some interest and perhaps of some use.

Places on the earth’s surface are located by latitude and longitude;
that is, they are assigned a definite position in the network of merid-
ians and parallels that are conceived of as covering the surface of
the earth. For every point there is a unique latitude and longitude
that applies to that point and to no other. A map projection is an
orderly arrangement of two sets of lines or curves, one set to represent
parallels and the other set to represent the meridians. They must be
ordered by some law because they must have a sequence ordered as
are the meridians and parallels themselves. This orderly arrangement
may come from direct geometric projection or it may be expressed in
mathematical terms. Of course all projections can be stated in mathe-
matical terms, but sometimes a projection is more directly in evidence
when considered as a true geometric projection. It is rather unfortu-
nate that all possible schemes are called projections for in some cases
it is rather difficult to interpret them in the way of geometric projec-
tion.

Oscar S. ADAMS
President, Philosophical Society of Washington
1933

k
i
t
he

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 203

The difficulty that we have to face in any method of projection is
due to the fact that the earth’s surface is a curved spheroidal surface
and consequently no part of it can be flattened out in a plane without
distortions. There is no such thing as a perfect map of any part of the
earth’s surface. In wrestling with problems of this nature we may wish
that the earth were flat, as some religious sects contend that it is, or
at least that it were a developable surface such as a cone or a cylinder,
but if either of these conditions were so I fear we should as a conse-
quence be plagued with greater evils. We might better “bear those
ills we have than fly to others that we know not of.”

Since the spheroid is not a developable surface and cannot be repre-
sented on a plane accurately in all parts, any map must be a compro-
mise between the various desirable properties. There are, in the main,
four things to be considered in regard to any map in question. These
are:

1. The accuracy with which a projection represents the scale
along the meridians and the parailels.

2. The accuracy with which it represents areas.

3. The accuracy with which it represents the shape of the fea-
tures of the area included. |

4. The ease with which the projection can be constructed.

The scale of a map in a given direction at any point is the ratio
which a short distance measured on the map bears to the correspond-
ing distance upon the surface of the earth. The definition must be
limited to short distances, because the scale of a map will generally
vary from point to point; in other words we must limit ourselves to
small elements of length in the way that is familiar to every beginner
in the calculus.

We must be careful, in comparing distances, to choose directions
that really correspond to each other upon the earth and upon the
map. The meridians and parallels on the earth intersect everywhere
at right angles; but there are many map projections in which the
corresponding lines do not intersect at right angles. In such projec-
tions, two directions at right angles on the earth would not necessarily
correspond to two directions at right angles on the map. We can
avoid confusion if we confine ourselves as much as possible to the
consideration of the scale along the meridians and parallels of the
map, which necessarily correspond to the meridians and parallels
on the earth.

We should like to have the scale of the map correct in every direc-
tion at every point. If this could be done, the plane map would be a

204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 5

perfect representation of the spheroidal surface of the earth. Since
this is impossible, the scale cannot be correct in all parts of the map.
We are, however, able to choose some one direction and hold the scale
constant in that direction; as, for instance, along the meridians or
along the parallels. When this is done, the scale in other directions
will be wrong at nearly all points.

In what is called the zenithal equidistant polar projection, the
scale is constant along the meridians. We denote the scale along the
meridian by &.,,; in this case k,, =1; that is, it is constant. We denote
the scale along the parallel by k,; in this projection then k, =z/sin 2
which is a variable quantity, z being the angular distance from the pole.

An orthogonal polar geometric projection on the plane of the
equator holds the scale constant along the parallels. In this case
km = coszand k, =1. The distortion of scale in this projection is more
noticeable than in the case of the equidistant projection, and, in fact,
it is greater as well as more self-evident. This is approximately the
way a map drawn on a globe would appear when looked at from a
great distance. Also, it is about the way that the surface of the moon
looks to us. Of course the point from which geometric projection lines
would have to be drawn must be an infinite distance away since the
projecting lines are all perpendicular to the mapping plane. However
for practical purposes the distance of the moon from the earth may be
considered as belonging to the junior order of infinities. Considered
by and large, the best we can do for our satellite is to represent its
surface on such a projection since it persists in turning the same face
to us at all times.

In the general theory of projections there are two classes that are
much used in the actual construction of maps. These are what are
called the conformal projections and the equal area projections. In
the conformal projections the scale is constant in all directions for
infinitesimal distances at a given point. In consequence of this, the
angles formed by curves on the earth are preserved in their projec-
tions on the map. Since the meridians and parallels on the earth inter-
sect at right angles, the lines or curves representing them on the map
must also intersect at right angles. In all such maps, there must neces-
sarily be points at which this preservation of angles breaks down un-
less the projection passes off to infinity. Even there, if we choose to
consider infinity as a point, the conformality fails. In the well known
Mercator projection, if we look upon the meridians as meeting at
infinity they will all meet at zero angle since they are represented
by parallel straight lines.

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 205

An equal area projection is one in which the ratio of area is constant
for all parts of the map; that is, a square inch in one part of the map
will represent the same area on the earth that a square inch in any
other part of the map would represent. Of such a map we could say
in general that a square inch of the map represents a certain number of
square miles on the earth. The ratio of area is held constant by mak-
ing the ratio of length vary at a point in different directions. If the
scale is too great in one direction there must be other directions in
which it is too small if the ratio of area is to be maintained constant.
In a great many equal area projections the meridians and parallels
of the map do not intersect at right angles. On the other hand, if they
do so intersect, the scale ratios along the meridians and along the
parallels are reciprocals of each other; that is, k,k,, =1.

One of the best known conformal maps is the one based upon the
Mercator projection. This is frequently spoken of as a projection upon
a cylinder tangent at the equator. This has caused many to think of
it as a perspective or geometric projection upon the cylinder with all
of the projecting lines radiating from the center of the sphere. I am
acquainted with a work issued by two university professors in which
this statement is made and I have heard the same statement made by
others who should know better. In the Mercator projection of the
sphere the scale increases as the secant of the latitude; in the cylindri-
cal perspective projection the scale along the meridian increases as
the square of the secant of the latitude. The distance from the equator
of any point on the map would be given by s =a tan ¢; hence the most
elementary knowledge of the calculus would show that

Now in the Mercator projection the ares of all parallels are kept equal
to the same arc on the equator; hence the scale in the longitudinal
direction is equal to sec ¢ and since the scale is constant at a point,
the scale along the meridian at the point is also equal to sec ¢ and not
sec’p as in the perspective projection. It is thus often misleading to
speak of the tangent cylinder in connection with the Mercator pro-
jection.

The stereographic projection is one of the oldest projections that is
still in use. It is said to have been used by Hipparchus for a map of
the celestial sphere as early as 130 B.C. This is a true perspective or
geometric projection from a point diametrically opposite to the point
of tangency of the mapping plane. In the polar stereographic projec-
tion when the north pole region is being mapped, the south pole is

206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

the point from which projecting lines are drawn. This projection is a
conformal one and hence this class of projections was one of the earli-
est to be introduced. The point of tangency can be anywhere on the
sphere so that the neighborhood of any place can be chosen as the
center of the map. When the point of tangency is on the equator, we
have what is called the meridian stereographic projection.

The equal area projections are useful when it is desired to preserve
the ratio of areas on the map the same as they are on the surface of
the earth. They are thus of great importance in showing statistical
data in which the relative amounts of area in separate parts enter
into the conception.

The Lambert zenithal equal area projection is one in common use
in atlases to represent a hemisphere. In the polar projection km =
cos 2/2 and k, = sec 2/2 illustrating the relation k,,k,=1.

rane
Beale |

aN NY

Fig. 1.—Parabolic equal area projections of the world. Compiled and arranged
by C. H. Deetz, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The Bonne projection is one that is frequently used for maps of
Asia. It belongs in the equal area class. Conical equal area projections
are very important, especially the Albers projection. The Geological
Survey has issued a wall map of the United States with this projec-
tion as a basis. Tables for the same were issued by the Coast and
Geodetic Survey which were computed under my direction. In late
years the sinusoidal projection has been much used for general maps.
A somewhat similar and, in some respects, a more pleasing projection
is the one called the parabolic equal area projection. This projection
is so called because the meridians are ares of parabolas. It was first
suggested by Lieut.-Col. J. E. E. Craster of England and I made some
computations from which Mr. Deetz of the Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey constructed an interrupted map of the world. The Carnegie In-

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 207

stitution of Washington is using the same projection for a general
map of Pan-America for use in studies in genetics.

Many of the equal area maps are much distorted in shape and some
of them remind one of images seen in comic mirrors. Werner’s heart-
shaped map of the world is one such; also Collignon’s triangular map
of the world and even the cylindrical equal area map.

We should not fail to mention the equal area world maps within an
ellipse. We have Mollweide’s map with straight line parallels and the
Hammer-Aitoff map in the same ellipse but with curved parallels. A
rather curious map of this kind is the transverse Mollweide computed
by Col. Close of England.

The surface of the earth adopted for mapping purposes is that of an
ellipsoid of revolution. This is a more complicated surface than that of
a sphere. Latitude upon the ellipsoid is the angle made by a normal
to the surface with the plane of the equator. These normals in general
do not pass through the center of the ellipsoid. If one wants to com-
pute projections by taking into account the ellipticity of the earth the
formulas become quite complicated. In the discussions of the Lambert
conformal conic projection, it is usually stated that the geocentric
latitude can be used since it differs but slightly from what may be
called the conformal or isometric latitude. In the early computations
that I directed and made, this latitude was used. My attention was
drawn to the question of the magnitude of this difference by an in-
quiry to the Office of the Survey from the venerable James Pierpont
of Yale University. He inquired at what latitude this difference was
a maximum and what was the approximate size of the difference. I
was called upon to answer the query and my interest was thus
aroused. All authorities stated that if this isometric latitude were
known then all conformal projections could be computed directly
from this conformal or isometric sphere. I conceived the idea of taking
all different kinds of latitude for which there was any use and de-
veloping the differences between them and the geodetic latitude in
terms of the sines of the multiple ares. In all, five kinds of latitudes
were thus treated. Tables were then computed that can be used for
any future computations.

The isometric latitude is then a conformal projection of the sphe-
roid on the sphere. A conformal projection of this isometric sphere
on the plane therefore gives a conformal representation of the sphe-
roid on the plane. :

In analogy to this, I had the happy inspiration to project the
spheroid on a sphere of equal surface so that the projection was

208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

characterized by equal areas in all of its parts. I had never seen this
referred to by any authority; so I gave the name of authalic latitude
to this conception after Tissot who employed the term authalique for
all equal area projections. The equivalent sphere is also called the
authalic sphere.

Fig. 2.—Conformal map of the Western Hemisphere in a square.

Another important latitude is the one called the rectifying latitude.
A sphere is chosen such that the length of a meridian on it is exactly
equal to the length of a meridian on the spheroid. Then corrections to
the geodetic latitudes are computed so that each parallel on the sphere
is the correct distance from the equator. With these latitudes any are
of the meridian can be computed readily and accurately.

I shall now give some account of a series of projections with which

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 209

my name is more directly connected since they are the result of my
own investigations. In 1864 H. A. Schwarz proved that a circle could
be mapped conformally upon a regular polygon of n sides by means of

the integral
[ a dx
W — a .
0 (1 pas Gp) lL

This was proved by the theory of functions of a complex variable,
and its validity is readily seen to follow from consideration of inte-
grals in that branch of mathematical analysis. Two examples of the
results of this theorem had been made, one by C. 8. Peirce in 1877

WO ee as nae
[REE
Se Steser re seseer aa bike |_|

COE
SS
SY OTH ee

Fig. 3—Conformal map of the world in a rhombus.

at that time a member of the Coast and Geodetic Survey and one by
Lieut. Guyou of France. Both of these depended upon the integral
when n =4, and hence the maps were enclosed in a square.

Now Gauss and LaGrange had proven that any projection derived
by any function of the complex variable for any conformal projec-
tion would of necessity give a new conformal projection. Moreover
since Gauss established the theorem in all generality, when such pro-
jections are formed, we do not need to investigate whether they are
conformal. Their conformality follows from the general theorem.

I saw at once that if we could form an algorithm for the computa-
tion of the integral

ie dz
i ey jedan ola
0 (1—28)2/8

210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

we should have a circle mapped within a triangle, and by further
manipulation we could map the circle or a hemisphere within a rhom-
bus with one pair of angles 120° and the other pair 60°. One could, of
course, develop the integral in a series and use for z the complex
variable of the stereographic projection, but this is a laborious proc-
ess since the series does not converge very rapidly.

As an aid in the formation of computation methods, I decided to
invert the integral and to develop the properties of z as a function of w.
In 1890 Prof. A. C. Dixon of Trinity College, Cambridge, published
a paper On the doubly periodic functions arising out of the curve x?+y?
—3axy =1. On consulting this article, I saw at once that the function
that I wished to treat was a special case of the functions that he had
developed. If a became zero, then the functions that he had devised
became the same as those that I wished to treat. These functions are
single valued elliptic functions with many interesting properties. In
Special Publication No. 112 of the Coast and Geodetic Survey there
is a rather comprehensive account of the function which I denoted,
after Dixon, by the symbol sm w. By means of the properties of this
function, I was able to devise formulas for the computation of the
projections.

In all, five different projections were computed with these functions
and published in the above-mentioned publication:

1. Northern hemisphere in an equilateral triangle and the whole
sphere in a regular hexagon.

2. Western hemisphere in the rhombus, poles in the 120° angles.

3. The same with the poles in the 60° angles.

4. Northern hemisphere in the rhombus, pole at the center of
the rhombus.

5. Rhombic projection of the world, poles in |the 120° angles.

A projection of the western hemisphere within the Peirce and
Guyou square and with the poles in a pair of the angles was also in-
cluded in the same publication.

A further illustration of the Schwarz integral was computed, based
upon 6 as the value of n. This gives the northern hemisphere in a
regular hexagon, and the rest of the world mapped on the points of a
six rayed star.

As a final example of the use of elliptic functions, for maps, the
world was conformally mapped in an ellipse similar to the Mollweide
ellipse. This was done in two steps; first a computation was made for
a projection within an elongated rectangle. A map was constructed on
this grid to show what it was like. By use of a function of the complex

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 211

variable of this projection, the final map was made. This map has
been reproduced in the recent important French work on projections
by Driencourt and Laborde as an example of a planisphere in this
ellipse that does not have such violent distortions of shape as have the
others mapped in the same ellipse.

Before leaving this subject I wish to call attention to a conformal
projection that was computed for Mr. B. J. 8. Cahill, an architect of
Oakland, Calif. Mr. Cahill calls this projection a butterfly map of the
world. It is easy to see that the projection depends on the same el-
liptic function that I have used for the various other maps within a
rhombus. The map is strictly conformal and is computed on the most
rigid mathematical basis.

|| in ae ALI
eee (68 eeaeens StH Sa |
ACCA vay
SSW ZEEE
ELE

Fig. 4.—Conformal map of the world in an ellipse.

Besides this map, I have computed for Mr. Cahill what he calls his
gnomonic variant of the butterfly map. This is in fact a gnomonic
projection or a geometric projection from the center of the sphere
upon a circumscribed regular octahedron; then this octahedron is
split along the edges and spread out into the plane in the butterfly
style. In this projection a great circle on the sphere becomes a straight
line on the map. Unfortunately we can only consider the earth as a
sphere in making such a map. It might be thought that we could first
project the ellipsoid on the sphere in such a way that the geodetic
lines on the spheroid would become great circles on the sphere. It is
to be regretted that this cannot be done. It has been proved that
geodetic lines on an ellipsoid cannot in general be projected into
straight lines in the plane. Now if such a projection could be made on
the sphere the geodetic lines would become straight lines in the plane,

212 JOURNAL OF TNE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

but this is contrary to what has been proved. However for the usual
mapping purposes it is sufficiently accurate to consider the earth as
a sphere.

f- I wish here to call attention to an interesting feature in making cer-
tain types of maps. I have spoken of the conformal projection of the
spheroid upon the sphere as forming a cartographic expedient that
is very useful in practice. In addition to this we can map the whole
sphere conformally on the half sphere and then project this hemi-
sphere upon the plane within a circle. This is done in the case of La-
grange’s projection in which case we can imagine a cut made along a

aN AAS
Peidensess AS ra
Pe ETE Cs.
CRA Z CHEATS RRS
SESE SA Bee e eS N Soe eee Eee HN ge er eerowN
BEE eoceeessuauueaesersss a2 =< SES rt ge Te
CZ : : HSS BENOIT eS
seb cctsseceensesnecerssss == ee Ngee >
SEES rg eR ee eeteseses =e
SSSA AEE EEE SREY
seaean Baeeeees sess.) ERE
SSOEEEEE ERE a ERE
SSE Cv i LADS Es
Na ees eu Ve Seetete genenle
SARS SONA ga
SBR oe,
Ries, eeceecats sor}
RRR eee!
Seeeaes eee ct
A ses!
LIL LP Ee
UST ALO ge
meee eaee, LER caus!
Hie eee sate
LTR Re SS SH
Ke quiet
MESS SAU
WIE SD & \
Ly” AN
yy <<

Fig. 5.—Gnomonic map of the world on a circumscribed octahedron.

meridian from pole to pole and then the surface shrinking conformally
until the whole surface covers only a half of the sphere. This hemis-
phere projected conformally on the plane as a meridian projection
gives Lagrange’s projection of the world within a circle. ,
As an interesting experiment, I tried cutting along the equator
half way around and then causing the surface to shrink conformally
until only the half sphere was covered. This hemisphere could then
be projected into the plane in a circle as was done in Lagrange’s pro-
jection. However I computed the same in a square with the poles
situated on a diagonal symmetrical with respect to the center. Other
arrangements either in a square or in the rhombus that I have al-
ready used extensively could be made. It would be interesting to
map it in the.ellipse that I have already used, placing the poles on
the major axis symmetrical with respect to the center. Sometime,

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 213

possibly when I have too much leisure on my hands, I may try such
experiments. )

After the publication of the work on Elliptic functions applied to
world maps, I sent a copy to Professor Dixon explaining that his
article in the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics was the source of
my inspiration in the subject. I received a very pleasing letter in
reply in which he said that as far as he could check up he thought
that I was the only one who had ever looked into his article farther
than reading the title. He congratulated me very heartily on finding
some use for his work. |

Using Lagrange’s projection of the world within a circle as a basis,
we can compute a conformal map of the world within a two cusped
epicycloid. This has been done by Prof. August and I have computed
a table of coordinates for the same. It could be constructed graphically
after the Lagrange projection has been made to serve as a basis, but
better construction work can be done by the use of x and y coordi-
nates.

Just recently a new use for some of the more important projections
has come to the fore. In this country the Coast and Geodetic Survey
has some 40,000 miles of ares of triangulation. Since these cover great
stretches of territory all of the work has to be computed by means of
latitude and longitude. The actual surface of the earth is, of course,
very irregular but the ideal sea-level surface approximates very closely
to the surface of an ellipsoid of revolution. Such a surface has been
adopted as the basis of geodetic operations and all of our triangula-
tion is computed on this ideal surface in terms of latitude and longi-
tude and azimuths and lengths.

Now local surveyors in cadastral surveys and surveys for public
works are interested in general in much more limited areas. A demand
arose from engineers throughout the country for the establishment of
plane coordinate systems for regions in which such work was to be
done. It has been the custom of most such engineers to establish local
systems for their various projects. This led to much confusion when
it was desired to extend the work so that various projects overlapped.
It was found very troublesome to coordinate the work with what had
already been done. Also these local systems are quite limited as to
the distance that they can be carried without troublesome discrepan-
cies entering into the work.

It might be said that such engineers should resort to geodetic com-
putations. This is easy to say and we of the Coast and Geodetic
Survey have been saying it for many years. However, the trouble is

214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

that ‘‘you can lead a horse to water but you can’t make him drink.”
Geodetic computations are rather complicated and, though they are
easy enough when one is used to them, it is nevertheless difficult to
get the general public to use them. So, “if the mountain will not come
to Mahomet, then Mahomet will go to the mountain” and that is
exactly what we have done.

In response to this demand for coordinate systems that could be
applied to more extensive areas and would still give exactness in
computation, I was requested by Major Bowie to look into the mat-
ter to see what could be done. The first request came from the engi-
neers of the Public Works Administration of North Carolina. The
Coast and Geodetic Survey in cooperation with this state was just
completing a network of triangulation over the state that gave ex-
cellent control for any engineering work within the region. The state
officials were making extensive surveys for roads and other public
works and they wanted this control data put on a more practical
basis for use by their engineers and the request was a very logical
one. All Federal control data should be put in such form as to be most
readily available for the engineers who wish to use such _ con-
trol.

After a careful study of the situation we recommended a state-
wide system of plane coordinates based upon the Lambert con-
formal conic projection with two standard parallels. Since this gives
one system for the entire state, any work done in any part of the state
that is based on the general control system is at once coordinated
with the work in any other region of the state. Scale discrepancies
are found in such an extensive system, but they are definite variations
that can be taken into account and computations can be made upon
the grid with an accuracy far within the accuracy of ordinary en-
gineering work. |

With careful use of the scale factors geodetic accuracy can be ob-
tained. This system has been in use in North Carolina for some time
and all the surveys that are being made at the present time are com-
puted directly on this grid making use of the scale factors in all cases.
Work of this kind is very active in that state under the state relief
appropriations.

After completing the computation for North Carolina a similar
computation was made for Long Island. In this system owing to the
limited extent in latitude the scale variations could be kept below one
part in 100,000 for the island proper with most of it as good as one
part in 200,000. This is within the accuracy of even geodetic control,

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 215

so it will not be necessary to trouble about the scale factors except
for the most exact computations.

As a next experiment, a system for New Jersey Was devised, based
upon the transverse Mercator projection. This is the well known
Mercator projection with its axis turned to an east and west direction
in which the coordinates are related to a central meridian in the same
way that the ordinary Mercator projection is related to the equator.
To give a balance of scale in the system, the scale was reduced one
part in 40,000 along the central meridian. This makes the scale exact
along two small circles parallel to the central meridian at a distance
from it of approximately 28 miles. We might think of this as an in-
tersecting cylinder instead of a tangent cylinder but we have advised
against this cylindrical conception of the projection. It is similar to
what we should have in the ordinary Mercator projection if the scale
were held exact along parallels approximately 28 miles north and south
of the equator.

Formulas for the direct computation of coordinates from geodetic
positions have been devised for both systems of coordinates. These
are comparatively simple and the computations can be made by any-
one familiar with the use of logarithms and trigonometric tables. The
state tables are made to include all of the data necessary for such
computations. After all geodetic stations have been computed in
terms of x and y coordinates on the grid, all further computations can
be made directly in terms of plane coordinates.

Single systems have also been computed for Maryland, Tennessee
and Massachusetts on the Lambert projection and for Delaware on
the transverse Mercator. For Iowa, Ohio and South Carolina two
systems on the Lambert have been used with the division between
them determined by county lines. This will keep each county on a
single system. In Florida it was found desirable to employ three sys-
tems; two transverse Mercators for the north and south section and a
Lambert for the western portion at the north. Georgia, Alabama and
Mississippi have been divided into two systems, each on the trans-
verse Mercator, and further systems will be computed just as rapidly
as possible until practically all of the states are provided with such
aids to accurate computation on the plane.

In our rapid survey of the various and sundry possibilities for flat-
land construction, we have seen that the ideal map has proved as elu-
sive as Sarah Gamp’s Mrs. Harris. The best we can do is to choose
the form of projection that is most suitable for the particular purpose
that the map is to serve. We should be careful in any case not to draw

216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

conclusions from a map that are not justified by the facts. Even a
man in the Coast and Geodetic Survey inquired why ships and aero-
planes go north by way of Newfoundland in going from New York
City to England. He said ‘‘Why not go straight across and save a lot
of distance?’ He was thinking in terms of a Mercator projection and
not in terms of a gnomonic as should be done in all such cases. A
gnomonic map will show that the great circle from New York City
to Liverpool passes through Massachusetts west of Boston and over
Newfoundland well towards the northern portion. Any route south of
this line is necessarily a longer one. The shortest distance from Seattle
to Yokohama passes through the Aleutian Islands. That from Pan-
ama to Yokohama passes far inland through the states, entering the
Pacific near the mouth of the Columbia River.

Even a President of the United States, in his letter of congratula-
tion to an explorer of arctic regions, felicitated him for the discovery
of an island westward of the pole. I fear it would tax the ingenuity
even of a president to explain in what way any point on the earth could
be westward of the pole. We should attempt to judge things not as
they seem but as they are.

I am glad to note that a number of moderate priced globes have
appeared on the market in the last few years. This is a matter that
I advocated in Special Publication No. 68 which appeared some years
ago. Whether my advice has been a factor in causing this new move-
ment I am not able to say, but I do know it is an important move.
Even a small globe, though badly fitted together, will give a truer
picture of the relative arrangements of the features of the earth than
can be secured from the best of maps.

We may not be intentionally misleading as is described by Dean
Swift:

“So geographers, in Afric maps,
With savage pictures fill their gaps,

And o’er uninhabitable downs
Place elephants for want of towns.”’

Nevertheless, our best efforts are often misinterpreted through lack
of insight on the part of the user. Let us all try

“To know what’s what, and that’s as high
As metaphysic wit can fly.”

MAY 15,1934 §BLACKWELDER: PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION 217

GEOLOGY.—Supplementary notes on Pleistocene glaciation in the
Great Basin! Eviot BLACKWELDER, Stanford University.

Since the publication of my paper on the glaciation of the Sierra
Nevada and Basin Ranges,” I have extended my studies among the
ranges of Utah, Nevada, and eastern California. The results, so far
as they concern glaciation, are here presented.

Stansbury Range, Utah.—A view from Grantsville affords clear evi-
dence of glaciation near Mt. Deseret (10,250 feet). The topographic
forms show that several glaciers occupied canyons in the eastern slope,
probably during the Tahoe glacial stage,-and descended about half
way to the base of the range, leaving moraines of considerable size in
the bottoms of the valleys. It seems probable also that the cirques
made at that time were refreshed by glacierets during the later Tioga
stage. Marsell,? who has climbed Mt. Deseret, confirms this opinion
and adds the information that several tarns were found in the cirques.

Oqurrh Range, Utah—According to Marsell, Mt. Lowe (10,200
feet) formerly had glaciers on its eastern slope. The freshness of the
cirques indicates the Tioga as well as the Tahoe stage.

Deep Creek Mountains, Utah—This short range on the western
edge of Utah reaches an altitude of 12,100 feet. My only information
regarding its glacial history is from Marsell who states that deep
cirques and glacial canyons, which he saw from the adjacent plain,
indicate vigorous glaciation in both Tioga and Tahoe stages. This
range is probably very similar to the Snake Range, farther south, in
both form and glacial history.

Pilot Range, Nevada.—A valley head on the northeast side of Pilot
Peak suggests by its form and rugged surface a cirque of Tahoe age,
but the locality has not been examined closely.

Independence Range, Nevada.—About fifty miles north of Elko, a
small group of glaciers once clustered around Jack’s Peak (altitude
about 11,000 feet). In the Tahoe stage a glacier descended McAfee
canyon, on the eastern slope, about 43 miles and built a moraine on
the edge of the plain. The terminal portion has since been eroded away
and replaced by a wedge shaped alluvial fan, but the old lateral
moraines extending down to the base of the range are still conspicu-

1 Received Jan. 22, 1933.

* BLACKWELDER, Exiot. Pleistocene glaciation in the Sierra Nevada and Basin
Ranges. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 42: 865-922. 1931. In this paper four glacial stages
are recognized as follows, beginning with the oldest: 1, McGee; 2, Sherwin; 3, Tahoe;
and 4, Tioga. The last of these is believed to be equivalent to the latest Wisconsin
moraines of northern United States.

’ Marsevi, R. E. University of Utah. Oral Communication.

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

ous. Two smaller glaciers occupied unnamed canyons immediately
to the north and another across the ridge to the south. In the Tioga
stage there were apparently only three glaciers in this group and the
largest was not much more than a mile long. Their existence is indi-
cated by the presence of tarns and by the freshness of the cirques and
moraines. Farther south there is similar evidence of two stages of
glaciation at the heads of Pratt and Foreman Creeks. No doubt when
the western slope of the same mountains is examined evidence of
similar glaciation will be found there also.

Along Foreman Creek at least there are two well defined sets of
gravel terraces—one 10 feet above the modern flood plain and the
other 36 feet. Reasoning from better known terraces elsewhere in the
West, I infer that the lower terrace was formed as a valley train at
the time of the Tioga glacial advance and the upper terrace during the
Tahoe stage.

When these mountains are more carefully examined it is probable
that evidence of still older glacial stages will be found.

Jarbidge Mountains and Copper Mountain.—As the highest peaks
of this group are, if anything, somewhat higher than Jack’s Peak, it is
almost certain that they were glaciated likewise. Distant views through
a hazy atmosphere were not sufficient to permit me to draw satisfac-
tory inferences.

Ruby Mountains.—The northern part of this range lying between
Wells and Secret Pass was formerly known as the East Humboldt
Range. Its summits rise to elevations of 10,500 to 11,300 feet but
its relief is greater and its slopes steeper than those of the In-
dependence Range. Many of the larger canyons on both flanks were
glaciated in both Tahoe and Tioga stages. Those on the west side were
apparently the largest—5 to 7 miles long in the Tahoe stage—but did
not reach the plain. On the east side those of the same age extended
down to the base of the range. The glaciers in Leach and Steel canyons
appear to have been the longest—about 3 miles. As usual, the older
(Tahoe) terminal moraines have been eroded away, leaving only the
lateral ridges. Excellent cirques, still ragged and bare, and small fresh
moraines’clearly indicate glaciers of the Tioga stage, but none of them
came far down the mountain sides South of Johnson Creek, on the
eastern slope and Boulder Creek on the west side, no definite evidence
of glaciation was observed.

From Secret Pass the main body of the Ruby Range extends
southward about 60 miles. Its crest is above 10,000 feet through per-
haps half of its length and culminates in Lamoille Peak (altitude

MAY 15, 1934 BLACKWELDER: PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION 219

11,128 feet). The eastern slope of the range, being steep and short,
afforded less catchment area for snow. Perhaps for this reason none
of the glaciers reached the base of the range even in the Tahoe stage,
although the Dawley Creek glacier came within about half a mile
of the plain. Most of the larger canyons between Lutts Creek and
Dawley Creek display the usual moraines and cirques, indicating
glaciation in both the last two stages.

On the western slope large glaciers descended Lamoille (13 miles
long) and Rattlesnake canyons during the Tahoe stage and extended
out upon the adjacent plain. Several intermediate glaciers reached
the base of the range. Even in the Tioga stage glaciers several miles
long occupied the heads of these canyons.

No clear evidence of glaciation has been observed south of Harrison
Pass and nowhere in the range has clear evidence of pre-Tahoe glacia-
tion been found.‘ }

During a moister epoch, which probably coincided with the last
glaciation in the mountains, an extensive lake occupied the basin east
of the Ruby Range. Conspicuous gravel embankments around the
northern and eastern sides of the lake and occasional wave-eroded
cliffs indicate a lake which was at one time at least 120 feet deep. It has
now dwindled to two shallow lakes, of which the northern one is little
more than a marsh.

Toyabe Range, Nevada—The Toyabe Range, culminating in Arc
Dome, at an elevation of 11,775 feet, is somewhat higher than the
Ruby Range and yet reveals to cursory examination surprisingly lit-
tle evidence of glaciation. At the head of a canyon on the east slope
about 12 miles south of the Lincoln Highway, obscure cirques now
much clogged with talus, suggest glaciation in the Tahoe stage only.
The canyons around Are Dome, west of Round Mountain, seem to
have harbored glaciers several miles long during the Tahoe epoch,
but the cirques are now so subdued that I am disposed to doubt that
there were any glaciers there in the Tioga stage. Apparently the most
favorable place for glaciers in this range is in the deep canyon south
of Arc Dome, a locality not yet examined.

Shoshone Range, Nevada.—These mountains are a northward con-
tinuation of the Toyabe Range but are generally somewhat lower in
altitude. As seen from the railroad near Beowawe, the highest moun-
tain in this group has a cirque-like hollow on its northeast side that
strongly suggests glacial action of Tahoe age.

* As mentioned in my earlier paper (Op. cit., p. 911), some indications of till of the
pwn stage were found west of the mouth of Lamoille canyon, at the western base of
e range.

220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

Wassuck Range, Nevada.—This range was evidently too low to in-
duce vigorous glaciation. The only evidence I have observed is a
cirque-like excavation on the east side of the highest peak, Mt. Grant
(elevation 11,303 feet) which suggests a small glacier of the Tahoe
stage.

Sweetwater Range, California.—Being higher (11,646 feet) than the
Wassuck Range, the Sweetwater Mountains were fairly well glaciated
at least during the Sherwin and Tahoe stages. Subdued cirques and
small moraines suggesting glacierets of Tahoe age have been found
at the heads of Desert and Deep Creeks on the western slope. On the
east flank ice tongues of the same age were somewhat longer and more
numerous. Although the canyons there have not been closely exam-
ined, the glacier in Sweetwater canyon appears to have been about 3
miles long and extended more than half way down to the base of the
range. The cirques are not ragged and clean enough to suggest vigor-
ous ice action in the Tioga Stage.

Near the head of Deep Creek on the western slope a body of much
weathered and eroded old till indicates that a glacier of the Sherwin
stage about 3 miles long descended below the 9300 foot contour.

White Mountain Range in California. —Although by far the highest
mountain range in the Great Basin (summit 14,242 feet) this range
was less severely glaciated than the much lower Ruby Range. Only
the northern part of the range, about 22 miles in all, gives evidence
of strong glaciation. Small glaciers of the Tioga stage are indicated
by fairly clean cirques and suggestions of very bouldery moraines at
high elevations. In the Tahoe stage much longer glaciers descended
the canyons but none of them approached the base of the range
closely. On Perry Aiken Creek, on the east side of the range, a remnant
of what is probably the Tahoe stage moraine stands at an altitude of
about 6,500 feet, 2 miles back from the margin of the range. No evi-
dence of glaciation has been observed south of Milner Creek on the
west slope, or on Iron Creek on the east side.

On both sides of Perry Aiken canyon and near the front of the range,
bodies of ancient till, now greatly eroded and weathered, probably
represent the Sherwin stage. The distribution of these remnants sug-
gests that the glacier of that age extended out to the adjacent plain.
The patches of old till lie upon the tops of ridges which themselves
have been carved out of granitic rock. In this locality faulting along
the base of the range has introduced complications not usually present.
From a brief study of the valley I infer that a thick valley train was
aggraded below the terminal moraine of the Tahoe stage. A displace-

MAY 15, 1934 BLACKWELDER: PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION 221

ment of nearly 300 feet on a fault along the base of the range then
caused this deposit to be deeply trenched, leaving gravel terraces of
corresponding height along the sides of the canyon. The large fan at
the mouth of the present canyon is therefore probably of late Pleisto-
cene and Recent age. It is still growing by the addition of bouldery
mudflows at frequent intervals.

Spring Mountain Range, Nevada.—This southernmost range of high
mountains in Nevada attains an altitude of 11,910 feet, but ap-
parently it was too far south to receive snow enough for glaciers dur-
ing the Tioga epoch. The somewhat excavated heads of the canyons
surrounding the highest peak afford a suggestion of glaciation during
the Tahoe stage. It is still more probable that glaciers were present
in the Sherwin stage, but observational evidence is not yet available.

Panamint Range, California—Although Telescope Peak reaches
an elevation of 11,045 feet no good evidence of glaciation has been
afforded by views from the base of the range on either side. However,
because of its altitude and geographic position, it seems possible that
glaciers were present in the Sherwin stage, but scarcely probable that
even small glaciers occupied any of the valley heads during Tahoe
time.

Other Great Basin ranges of which the highest peaks reached eleva-
tions between 10,000 and 11,000 feet may well have possessed small
glaciers during the Sherwin and even the Tahoe glacial stage. Most
of these mountains have not been examined for evidence of glaciation.
In some, the record will doubtless be obscure, and in others, quite
lacking.

SUMMARY

The facts which have been derived from this reconnaissance indi-
cate rather clearly that the distribution and intensity of mountain
glaciation are influenced by three factors—latitude, humidity, and
altitude. In the mountains of Nevada which attain elevations of
11,000 to 12,000 feet the severity of glaciation decreases steadily from
north to south, as would be expected. In northernmost Nevada moun-
tains scarcely 11,000 feet high were inhabited by small but vigorous
glaciers of Tioga stage, whereas near the southern end of the state,
mountains nearly 12,000 feet high had no glaciers at that time.

The influence of humidity is conspicuously shown by the extensive
glaciation of the Sierra Nevada, whereas the equally high White
Mountain Range, which lies directly east and therefore in the rain-
shadow of the Sierra, had only a few relatively small glaciers.

222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 5

The Ruby Range illustrates the importance of altitude as a factor.
In the section where the peaks range in elevation from 10,500 to
more than 11,000 feet every canyon held a vigorous glacier. Farther
north along the same ridge, where the highest summits rise to only
9,500 to 10,000 feet, there is little evidence of glaciation.

In keeping with the well known fact that the last three glacial
episodes in western United States form a declining series, it is clear
that in the Great Basin each successive member of that series could
form glaciers only at a higher altitude than the one preceding. In
central Nevada the mountains below 11,500 feet developed no gla-
ciers during the Tioga ice stage and those below 10,700 feet none in
the Tahoe stage. Much less is known about the Sherwin glacial stage
but from the greater extent of the ice lobes of that time it seems prob-
able that an altitude of about 9,500 to 10,000 feet may have been suf-
ficient then to induce glaciation. It seems very improbable that any
mountains whose summits are less than 9,000 feet in altitude in north-
ern Nevada or 10,500 feet in extreme southern Nevada will be found
to show any evidence of Pleistocene glaciation. It is not to be for-
gotten that some vertical diastrophic movements have occurred in
the region since the Sherwin stage, but available evidence indicates
that in most places the increase of relief from that cause has been
negligible.

BOTAN Y.—WMicrosporum of cats causing ringworm in man. VERA
K. CHARLES and ALINE FENNER Kempton, Bureau of Plant
INDUSTRY.’ 7

It has been recognized for some time that domestic animals and
pets may be a source of danger to man as carriers of disease. A case of
ringworm infection transmitted by a cat, which came to our attention
in 1933 not only demonstrated this fact but enabled us to work out
very definitely the exact stages in the transmission of the ringworm
fungus from cat to man. The following is a brief outline of the history
of the case.

The first victim we will designate as Case I. In this instance a three-
months-old Persian kitten had been acquired, and after having it
about 3 weeks the new owner developed a few suspicious spots on the
throat. The original owner of the kitten had observed a few dandruff-

1 Received January 29, 1934.

2 Acknowledgment is made of the assistance of Dr. L. T. Giltner, of the Bureau
of Animal Industry.

MAY 15, 1934 CHARLES AND KEMPTON: MICROSPORUM OF CATS 223

like particles on the neck especially on the throat of the kitten, but
had attributed their appearance to a slight stomach disorder, which
seemed to have been controlled before the kitten was acquired by the
new owner, or Case I. The later history of the case proved that a cure
had not been effected, but the kitten had been combed and cared for
so carefully that no evidence of scurf remained. It is important to
note that the kitten’s home in both instances was an apartment.
As previously mentioned, about 3 weeks after the kitten had been ac-
quired several red, oval to round spots appeared almost simultan-
eously on the throat, chest, and face, especially around the eyes and
shoulders of the new owner. Later the affection spread to all parts of
the body. These spots were accompanied by intense itching and the
infected area became inflamed and feverish. A microscopic examina-
tion of particles of skin from the diseased area revealed the presence
of mycelium but no fruiting fungus. Cultures made from dandrufflike
particles in the hair produced spores, but no typical lesions developed
on the scalp.

Cultures were made on Sabouraud medium from scrapings from the
affected parts, and in three days the fungus was fruiting abundantly.
As soon as the mycelium was found suspicion was directed to the
kitten. The animal was immediately brought to the laboratory and
on careful examination showed a few dandrufflike particles. A micro-
scopic examination of this material also disclosed mycelium. Cultures
were made on Sabouraud with the result that in three days the fungus
was fruiting abundantly. The two cultures, one from the human skin
and the other from the cat, proved to be identical.

When the cultures were about ten days old, two healthy short-
haired cats were inoculated, one from the human inoculum and one
from the strain from the cat. With the latter strain two methods of
inoculation were used: (1) hairs from the diseased kitten were placed
on a scraped spot of the skin of the cat to be inoculated; (2) a bit
of the fruiting fungus was placed on a scraped spot of the skin of the
other healthy cat. All inoculations were positive and no difference
could be observed in the virility of the two strains. The new owner of
the kitten had lived in the apartment for some time before acquiring
the kitten; therefore there could be no doubt of the kitten being the
source of infection.

TREATMENT

Case I was given intensive and persistent treatment as soon as the
cause of the trouble was definitely diagnosed. Daily baths and fre-
quent shampoos were taken with medicated soap containing sulphur

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

or mercury compounds. The earliest treatment consisted in an ap-
plication of a 5 per cent solution of salicylic acid in 95 per cent
alcohol. The treatment was begun on April 18, and at first there
seemed to be evidence of improvement, but about a week later the
spots broke out again as small raised lumps around some of the old
lesions. Additional new lumps developed even after the infection had
run for some time. Treatment was continued once a day or twice
when new lesions appeared. Some authorities insist that a 10 per cent
solution of salicylic acid is necessary to kill the fungus, but this is very
severe and many skins cannot tolerate so high a percentage. An ap-
plication of 35 per cent solution of iodine was used quite faithfully
for a few days, but the salicylic acid seemed to be more effective. On
May 10, treatments were begun with bismuth violet,* made according
to the following formula: 1 gram of bismuth violet crystals, 10 grams
of salicylic acid, and 100 ce. of 70 per cent alcohol. This solution
proved too strong, and the percentage of salicylic acid was reduced
one-half. This treatment appeared quite effective, but on account of
its color the solution is not desirable for ordinary use.

During the latter part of May treatment with an ointment of am-
moniated mercury was begun, but as this was a salve it was applied
only at night. On June 1, treatment was started with a certain com-
mercial product. This was employed as a spray and was very con-
venient and satisfactory, as it could be applied several times a day
and caused no discoloration. This medicinal spray appeared very
effective, but just how much credit it should have is a question, be-
cause in all probability the fungus had been weakened or partly con-
trolled by the applications of strong salicylic acid. It is important to
repeat that, from the beginning, medicated soap was used regularly
for both baths and thorough shampoos. The treatment of the kitten
consisted of baths with a 1 per cent solution of orthophenylphenol
in cocoanut oil soap. This treatment failed to control the fungus,
which increased considerably and spread along the back and shoulders
of the kitten. The long thick hair was doubtless partly responsible for
the ineffectiveness of the treatment, but other factors entered into
the case. The kitten was confined in a small cage in a hot room having
a high degree of humidity. These two factors, heat and humidity,
were especially favorable to the growth of the fungus. At the end of
three weeks the kitten was taken to Pennsylvania by the original
owner who reported that the kitten was finally cured, after having
spent the summer out of doors.

3 Formula patented by Dr. Irving S. Barksdale, Greenville, S. C.

MAY 15, 1934 CHARLES AND KEMPTON: MICROSPORUM OF CATS 229

DURATION OF THE DISEASE AND SUSCEPTIBILITY

The lesions of Case I were of long duration and great severity. The
first spots appeared on April 16 and the spots continued to develop
until early August. Even after that period, small red spots developed
but soon subsided. During the course of the infection Case I developed
over 70 typical lesions, the largest the size of a dime. In addition to
the typical lesions, numerous small spots appeared which, however,
soon yielded to treatment. Case II, another member of the household,
developed lesions in considerable number but much less than Case I.
In this instance a lesion developed in the scalp and was very slow in
yielding to treatment. A third case was that of a friend who visited
the house only once, on April 17, 1933, and held the kitten for several
minutes. This case developed one very typical lesion on the neck,
which was cured by the use of strong iodine.

There is evidently a great difference in the susceptibility of in-
dividuals. The original owner of the kitten had six cats in addition to
the kitten so that there was every opportunity to develop a severe
case of ringworm. These cats developed the disease but in a much
milder form. No typical lesions appeared on the owner, but for some
weeks she was troubled with rather hard, red, raised spots on her
arms. These spots were too nearly cured when examined to make suc-
cessful cultures even if the fungus had been the cause of the eruption.

The question of susceptibility or non-susceptibility has been at-
tributed to various factors. E. W. and A. E. Stern? conducted experi-
ments on the pH concentration of different remedies and showed that
basic dyes are increasingly effective as inhibiting agents as the pH
of the media is increased. Gentian violet is a basic dye that is effective,
whereas mercurochrome is acid and has been found to be less effec-
tive. The question arose as to whether or not the degree of acidity or
alkalinity of the human system would have any bearing on the ques-
tion of susceptibility. Hoping to get a little data on this phase of the
subject, a series of experiments was conducted with culture media
having different pH concentrations ranging from 4.7 to 7.3. The
cultures were fairly uniform in growth, no marked differences being
observed.

DETERMINATION AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE CAUSAL ORGANISM

The mycelium observed in the scrapings from the human skin le-
sions and in the scurf from the kitten was found very sparingly and

4 Stearn, E. W. and A. E. Journ. Lab. & Clin. Med. 14: 1057-1060. 1927.

226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

was hyaline and fine, about 235 to 3u in diameter. In the cultures the
mycelium was much coarser. The cultures produced spores in great
abundance in 3 days. From the spores the fungus was determined as
a species of Microsporum.

Two species of this genus, M. lanosum Sabouraud’ and M. felineum
Fox and Blaxall® have been reported as occurring on cats. Micro-
sporum lanosum or Microsporum caninum Bodin was first observed
on dogs, but later reported on cats. Microsporum felineum was in-
vestigated first by Fox and Blaxall in 1896, who described the trans-
mission of the ringworm from cat to man, but did not name the fungus
specifically. This species was reported of frequent occurrence in Eng-
land but was not found in Paris. Later, in 1902, it was found by Mew-
born’ in New York. The author’s use of the name Microsporum felin-
eum appears to be the first time it was mentioned in literature. These
two species have been considered identical by different authorities,
and there is nothing in the descriptions of the microscopic characters
of the species to separate them.

The organism studied in the present investigation has been tenta-
tively referred to M. felinewm. Because of the marked variation ob-
served in the size and shape of the spores in cultures isolated from
cats, in the same strains at different ages, and in cultures inoculated
into cats and later recovered and re-cultured, it is felt that until a
comparative study is made of a large number of strains isolated from
cats a specific determination cannot be positive. Comparative exam-
inations were made of strains from cats from Texas, District of Co-
lumbia, and New York. The three strains showed a wide range in the
spore measurements. The strain from Texas grew slowly and produced
smaller, narrower spores than those of the local strain studied by the
authors, while the New York strain had spores over twice as long as
the latter strain and narrower. In strains from Texas and District of
Columbia, the cell walls were not conspicuously muriculate and then
only at an advanced stage. The strain from New York showed this
character earlier and in a much more marked degree. It is observed
that the spores of the organism studied here exceed the measurements
for M. felineum, but in the different strains studied the size of the
spores seemed to vary so much, according to age and vigor, that these
differences were not considered sufficiently constant to warrant the
establishment of a new species.

5 SABOURAUD, R. T'richophyties Humaines. Atlas, p. 58. Paris. 1907.
6 Fox, C. and Buaxatt, F. R. Brit. Journ. of Dermatology 8: 377-384. 1896.
7 Mewsory, A. D. New York Medical Journal 76: 843-849. 1902.

MAY 15, 1934 BERRY: WALNUT FROM CHESAPEAKE MIOCENE 227

Cultures made from the scrapings of the human skin and from the
scurf of the cat, on Sabouraud and corn meal agar, grew rapidly and
fruited in 3 days. The cultures were at first white and fluffy, but later
became powdery and deep cream in color. In Petri dishes the fungus
showed marked zonations and a tendency to make a secondary
growth. The spores were hyaline, spindle-shaped, mostly 7 to 9-
septate, and ranged in size from 8—-12ux45-60yu. Old cultures were
strikingly pleomorphic and showed an abundance of chlamydospores
and so-called aleurispores. No striking morphological differences were
apparent in cultures made from the inoculated cats.

It is proposed to assemble various strains of Microsporum occur-
ring on cats widely separated geographically in order to make a com-
parative study of these forms.

PALEOBOTANY.—A walnut from the Chesapeake Miocene.’ Ep-
waARD W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

Fossil plants are extremely rare in the shallow water marine forma-
tions of the Middle Atlantic Miocene and, as far as I know, are con-
fined to a very few localities where the near shore deposits of the
Calvert—the basal formation of the Chesapeake group—have yielded
a limited number of species.

1 2
Fig. 1. Juglans calvertiana Berry of Calvert formation, 13 miles south of Plum
Point, Maryland.

Fig. 2. J. calvertiana from Richmond, Virginia.

An attempt was made to evaluate these florules in 1916? and it
was concluded that the one from the District of Columbia with its
small-leafed oaks, holly, Vaccinium, Pieris and Leguminosae repre-
sented a temperate flora growing in a region of coastal sand dunes on
a low coast with high insolation and slight run-off; and that from Rich-
mond, Va., indicated a low coast lined with cypress swamps where the
inconsiderable run-off carried only the finest muds. This past summer

1 Received Dec. 16, 1933.

* Berry, E. W. The physical conditions indicated by the Here of the Calvert forma-
tion. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 98: 61-73, pls. 11, 2. 1916

228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 5

Dr. R. L. Collins collected a single compressed nut from Zone 11 of
the Calvert formation? at a locality 15 miles south of Plum Point, on
the Bay shore in Calvert County, Md. This was collected in place
from near the base of Zone 11 which is here a poorly fossiliferous sandy
clay about 13 ft. thick, at a point where recent storm waves had
washed a new face at the base of the cliff.

At about the same time Mr. Benjamin Gildersleeve working for the
Virginia Geological Survey, collected a second specimen from an ex-
posure in the bed of Cannon Creek, 100 ft. north of the Valley road
in the city of Richmond, Va. This second specimen was partly weath-
ered out of the matrix and is in two pieces, which enables one to get
some idea of the internal morphology.

Although it is not desirable to sacrifice the Maryland specimen to
check the internal features, the size, degree of compression, degree of
lignification and rather characteristic surface ornamentation leave no
doubt that the two fossils represent a nut of the same botanical species
and that the internal features of the Virginia specimen may safely
be used to amplify the description of the species.

There can be no doubt but that we are dealing with the fruit of
some member of the family Juglandaceae and the shape and rugose
surface of the specimens point to the genus Juglans rather than to
Hicoria. The seed itself is too shriveled to furnish positive evidence,
but the proportions and size of the seed cavity point in the same direc-
tion as do the external features.

The species may be called Juglans calvertiana and is the first Mio-
cene species from eastern North America. It may be described as
follows: | |

Juglans calvertiana n.sp.

Nut indehiscent, bony, apparently circular in cross-section, with no evi-
dence of any angularities; slightly prolate-spheroidal in form; slightly apicu-
late—a feature which may have been more pronounced in life than the speci-
mens indicate; rounded at the base; medium thick-walled, irregularly longi-
tudinally rugose, the rather flattened rugosities formed by inosculating and
rather deep sulcae.

Seed solitary, fleshy, deeply two-lobed, prominently pointed, too shrunken
to show whether it was corrugated as in Hicoria or more smoothly excavated
as in Juglans, seemingly less compressed than in Hicoria and with the gen-
eral proportions of the seeds of Juglans.

Maryland specimen Virginia specimen

Dimensions: Length 2 ema. 2°05) cme
Width 1.8 em. 1.8) vemey
Thickness 0.9 cm. L232 nem

3 Maryland Geol. Survey. Miocene, p. Ixxii, 1904.

MAY 15, 1934. BERRY: WALNUT FROM CHESAPEAKE MIOCENE 229

Regarding the ecological meaning of the specimen a species of Juglans
hardly fits into the picture of a dune flora or a cypress swamp association,
which, as previously mentioned were considered to be the associations of
the District of Columbia and Richmond florules respectively.

Insofar as climatic features are concerned Juglans accords well with the
idea of a temperate flora during the deposition of the Chesapeake group
Miocene. That this walnut was not a coastal species, but was carried into
the basin of sedimentation by river action seems probable, and while it is
remarkable that two specimens from widely separated regions should be
found at the same time, the fact that nothing of the sort has hitherto been
encountered in all the years that the Calvert exposures have been assiduously
collected over by both vertebrate and invertebrate paleontologists points
to the actual rarity of such remains and further enhances the probability
of the foregoing explanation.

The genus Juglans has a fossil record which according to the published
accounts goes back to the Mid-Cretaceous and about 150 nominal extinct
species have been described. Sixteen Upper Cretaceous species, all from
North American localities and all based upon leaflets have been described,
but the majority of these must be considered of doubtful botanical validity
as the identity of none of the leaflets is confirmed by fossil fruits. The fossil
fruits are found however, often in some abundance, in formations ranging
in age from the Eocene to the present.

About a dozen Paleocene species are recorded, all North American and all
open to some question, and about 26 Eocene all North American or Arctic,
except a single European form. The majority of these are based upon leaflets
but several fruits have also been found. Oligocene species to the number
of 15 have been described and these are all European except one based upon
entirely characteristic petrified seeds from the Titanotherium beds of
Dakota. The absence of North American Oligocene records is to be at-
tributed to the actual dearth of, and the failure to recognize beds of this age
on this continent and not to any absence of the genus at that time in North
America.

More than 50 Miocene species have been described, the majority of which
are European, but Asia, Porto Rico and northern South America appear in
the record at this time and many are represented by characteristic fruits.
The 14 North American Miocene species are all from the western part of the
continent.

About 20 Pliocene species are known, mostly European, although several
are from Asia and include many excellent and characteristic fruits. North
America does not contribute to the Pliocene record and, as in the Oligocene,
this is due to the sparsity of Pliocene deposits which are either marine or are
in the arid western part of the continent. Pleistocene species, several of
which are apparently extinct, are found in Europe (2), Asia (1), North Amer-
ica (4), and Porto Rico (1). The majority of these are based upon fruits.

230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

ORNITHOLOGY.— Bird bones from old Eskimo ruins in Alaska.
HERBERT FRIEDMAN, U.S. National Museum.

In the past few years several valuable lots of Alaskan avian bones
have come to the United States National Museum as a by-product of
explorations and excavations by members of the Divisions of Anthro-
pology and Ethnology. For convenience in publication and reference,
the reports on these collections have been combined into one paper,
but each is treated separately herein.

It has been argued at times that bird bones found in old Eskimo
habitations are not reliable faunal records as they might have been
brought there from quite far off by visiting Eskimos. This, however,
is largely negatived by the sedentary habits of almost all the present
tribes and village groups of these people.

Not only do these bones (which total hundreds of individual
specimens) reveal a little of the “‘third-dimension”’ of avian geog-
raphy, that is, the time duration of present local distribution, but they
also yield a number of interesting distributional records, as well as
supplying information on the diet of the Eskimos in prehistoric times.

ANCIENT BIRD BONES FROM AMAKNAK ISLAND, ALEUTIAN ISLANDS

The bones reported on below were collected by Mr. Henry B.
Collins, Jr., Assistant Curator of Ethnology of the United States
National Museum from three ancient Eskimo village sites on Amaknak
Island. The exact age of the sites (and therefore of the bones) is not
determinable, but according to Mr. Collins their antiquity is very
considerable, probably over a thousand years. The village sites are
designated by their relative positions—West, East, and Southwest.

Amaknak Island is a small island in Unalaska Bay near the entrance
of Captain’s Bay, in the northeastern part of Unalaska Island, in the
central part of the Aleutian chain. It has a port, Dutch Harbor, where
the ships bound for Unalaska generally call, but it has not figured in
ornithological literature under its own name to any extent, practically
all bird records from there having been recorded merely as ‘‘Unalaska
Island.”’

The bones include identifiable remains of 21 species. The majority
of these are well known members of the Aleutian, or even Unalaskan,
avifauna; two, the yellow-billed loon and the long-tailed jaeger, are
of interest as geographic records. Of the bones collected, those in

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-
ceived March 2, 1934.

MAY 15, 1934 FRIEDMAN: BIRD BONES FROM ALASKA 231

sufficiently good condition to be useful as specimens have been re-
tained in the national collections, the fragmentary specimens (unless
of interest as records) have not been kept in all cases. An annotated
list of the species follows.

GAVIA ADAMSI (Gray) Yellow-billed Loon

The yellow-billed loon is represented by a metacarpal and a tarso-
metatarsus found in the diggings in the East Village. This species
appears to be new to Unalaska Island.

GAVIA STELLATA (Pontoppidan) Red-throated Loon
Two fragmentary humeri were found at the East Village.

DIOMEDEA ALBATRUS Pallas Short-tailed Albatross

A coracoid from the South West Village site (two to three feet
down from the surface), and several fragmentary humeri from the
East Village (surface down to six feet below) represent this albatross.

PUFFINUS TENUIROSTRIS (Temminck) Slender-billed Shearwater

The slender-billed shearwater is represented by a coracoid found in
the surface diggings at South West Village.

PHALACROCORAX PELAGICUS PELAGICUS Pallas Pelagic Cormorant

Two humeri and a fragmentary tarsometatarsus from East Village,
a coracoid from West Village, and several humeri and a tibiotarsus
from South West Village (surface to three feet deep) reveal the pres-
ence of this cormorant on Amaknak Island.

ANSER ALBIFRONS subsp. White-fronted Goose

The white-front goose (probably gambelz) is represented by a broken
humerus found in the superficial diggings at East Village.

CLANGULA HYEMALIS (Linnaeus) Old-Squaw
One humerus of the old squaw was found at West Village.

HISTRIONICUS HISTRIONICUS PACIFICUS Brooks
Western Harlequin Duck

The western harlequin duck is represented by a humerus from the
superficial layer at South West Village, and by another from the
deepest layer (four to six feet) at East Village.

232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

SOMATERIA V-NIGRA Gray Pacific Eider

The Pacific eider is represented by bones from three village sites—
a tibiotarsus from West Village, a broken tarsometatarsus from South
West Village (layer two to three feet deep), and by fragments from
East Village (layer three to four feet deep).

SOMATERIA SPECTABILIS (Linnaeus) King Eider

Four fragmentary coacoids from East Village, an ulna from South
West Village (superficial layer), and a humerus from the deepest
layer (four to six feet) from North East Village belong to this species
and indicate the relative commonness of the king eider at Amaknak.

MELANITTA DEGLANDI (Bonaparte) White-winged Scoter

The white-winged scoter is represented by a broken humerus from
West Village, four humeri from East Village, and two humeri from
the superficial layer of North East Village.

OIDEMIA AMERICANA Swainson American Scoter

A tarsometatarsus from the middle layer (three to four feet deep)
from East Village is of this species.

HALIAEETUS LEUCOCEPHALUS ALASCANUS Townsend
Northern Bald Eagle

A broken humerus and a tarsometatarsus from South West Village
belong to the Northern bald eagle.

STERCORARIUS PARASITICUS (Linnaeus) Parasitic Jaeger

The parasitic jaeger is represented by a humerus and a tarsometa-
tarsus from East Village, and by a broken tibiotarsus from the deep-
est layer (four to six feet) from East Village.

STERCORARIUS LONGICAUDUS Vieillot Long-tailed Jaeger

The long-tailed jaeger is represented by five pairs of humeri and
one tarsometatarsus from East Village, two humeri and three frag-
mentary tarsometatarsi from South West Village (surface to three
feet deep), and by six humeri (two pair plus two) from West Village.

MAY 15, 1934 FRIEDMAN: BIRD BONES FROM ALASKA 233

LARUS HYPERBOREUS Gunnerus Glaucous Gull

A humerus from East Village and a mandible from the middle
layer (three to four feet) from East Village represent the glaucous
gull.

LARUS GLAUCESCENS Naumann Glaucous-winged Gull

The glaucous-winged gull is represented by a fragmentary humerus
from the lowest layer (four to six feet) from East Village.

URIA AALGE CALIFORNICA (Bryant) California Murre

The California murre is listed here on the basis of two humeri from
South West Village (two to three feet deep), and a piece of a skull, a
humerus, and some fragments from the two lower layers (three to
six feet deep) from East Village. This species is very similar to the
next osteologically and a number of bones have been considered
unidentifiable and are omitted from this report.

URIA LOMVIA ARRA (Pallas) Pallas’s Murre

The Pallas’s murre is represented by two broken humeri from
West Village, a coracoid, two humeri, two femurs, two fragmentary
pairs of clavicles, and three ulnae from South West Village (superficial
layer), and by nine humeri and three ulnae from East Village. If
Salomonsen’s new form inornata® be recognized, these bones would
have to be considered as of that race, a course that I consider not
unlikely.

CEPPHUS COLUMBA Pallas Pigeon Guillemot
A few fragments of pigeon guillemot bones were found in the
superficial layer at South West Village.
LUNDA CIRRHATA (Pallas) Tufted Puffin
The tufted puffin is represented by a humerus and an ulna from

East Village. |

BIRD BONES FROM OLD ESKIMO RUINS ON KODIAK ISLAND

The following bird bones were collected by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, cu-
rator of Physical Anthropology, United States National Museum, in
old Eskimo ruins on Kodiak Island, Alaska, during the summer of
1932. The bones are all in the collections of the Museum.

2 Ibis, 1932, p. 128: St. Matthew’s Island, Bering Sea.

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

GAVIA IMMER ELASSON Bishop Lesser Loon
One humerus of this loon was collected. The subspecific determina-
tion is made on the basis of geography.
COLYMBUS GRISEGENA HOLBOELLI (Reinhardt) Holboell’s Grebe

This species is represented by a single humerus.

DIOMEDEA ALBATRUS Pallas Short-tailed Albatross

A tarsometatarsus represents this species in the present collection.

FULMARUS GLACIALIS RODGERSI Cassin Pacific Fulmar
One fractured skull of this bird was unearthed.
PHALACROCORAX CARBO SINENSIS (Shaw and Nodder)
Chinese Cormorant

A humerus of this species (subspecies by virtue of geography) is
the most surprising discovery in this collection. It comprises not only
a great eastern extension of range of this cormorant, but also the first
record for the form in North America.

PHALACROCORAX PELAGICUS PELAGICUS Pallas Pelagic Cormorant

The pelagic cormorant is represented by five good and two frag-
mentary humeri, two ulnae, and one tibiotarsus.

ANSER ALBIFRONS ALBIFRONS (Scopoli) White-fronted Goose

The white-fronted goose is represented by a single humerus in al-
most perfect condition.

CHEN ROSSI (Cassin) Ross’s Goose
A fragmentary skull exactly matches one of this species. This bird
appears to be new to the avifauna of Kodiak Island.
CLANGULA HYEMALIS (Linnaeus) Old-squaw

One sternum of this form was collected.

SOMATERIA V-NIGRA Gray Pacific Eider

A single coracoid and two skulls of this eider were collected.

MAY 15, 1934 FRIEDMAN: BIRD BONES FROM ALASKA 2395

SOMATERIA SPECTABILIS (Linnaeus) King Eider

A humerus and seven skulls of this bird were brought back by Dr.
Hrdlicka.

ARCTONETTA FISCHERI (Brandt) Spectacled Eider
This duck is represented by a humerus. It is known to winter in the
Aleutian chain and southward.
MELANITTA DEGLANDI (Bonaparte) White-winged Scoter

Nine humeri and three ulnae of this bird were collected.

MELANITTA PERSPICILLATA (Linnaeus) Surf Scoter

Of this species five humeri and two ulnae were found.

OIDEMIA AMERICANA Swainson American Scoter

This duck is represented by a broken skull, fifteen humeri, and
two ulnae.

HALIAETUS LEUCOCEPHALUS ALASCANUS Townsend
Northern Bald Eagle

The bald eagle is one of the commonest birds of Kodiak Island, and
its remains are similarly numerous. It is represented in this collection
by nine skulls in various degrees of perfection, one pair of mandibles,

four sterna, seven synsacra, thirteen humeri, four ulnae, two radii,
five tibiotarsi, two coracoids, one clavicle, one femur, three tarsomet-
tatarsi, and twelve metacarpals.

LAGOPUS RUPESTRIS KELLOGGAE Grinnell Kelloge’s Ptarmigan

A single humerus of this bird was brought back by Dr. Hrdlicka.
The subspecific identification is based on Taverner’s data on the dis-
tribution of the races of the rock ptarmigan (Ann. Rept. Nat. Mus.
Canada 1928: 28-36).

LARUS HYPERBOREUS Gunnerus Glaucous Gull

This gull is represented by four humeri.

LARUS GLAUCESCENS Naumann Glaucous-winged Gull

Five humeri of this gull were collected.

236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 5

URIA AALGE CALIFORNICA (Bryant) and URIA LOMVIA ARRA
(Pallas) California Murre and Pallas’s Murre

It is unfortunate that the bones of these two murres are not more
diagnostic as both species occur on Kodiak Island. The genus is
represented by four skulls, five synsacra, one pair of clavicles, one
pair of maxillae, one femur, one ulna, two tibiotarsi, and twenty-
three humeri. The probabilities are that the majority of the bones
are of Uria lomua arra as that is the commoner of the two murres on
the Island.

CEPPHUS COLUMBA Pallas Pigeon Guillemot

A single skull represents this bird in the present collection.

BUBO VIRGINIANUS ALGISTUS (Oberholser)
Saint Michael Horned Owl

Dr. Hrdlicka collected six ulnae of a great horned owl, which on
geographical grounds, is probably the race algistus. It is rather strange
that no other parts of the skeleton were found.

SURNIA ULULA CAPAROCH (Miiller) American Hawk Owl

A single fragmentary skull represents this species.

CORVUS CORAX PRINCIPALIS Ridgway Northern Raven

This raven is represented by four skulls, one pair of maxillae, two
humeri, and two ulnae.

CORVUS BRACHYRHYNCHUS CAURINUS Baird Northwestern Crow

A single humerus of this crow was collected.

BIRD BONES FROM CAPE DENBEIGH, NORTON SOUND

These bones were collected by Mr. H. B. Collins, Jr., from diggings
of prehistoric, but probably not very ancient, Eskimo ruins at Cape
Denbeigh. The great bulk of the bones are of two species of ptarmigan,
Lagopus rupestris and Lagopus lagopus, both of which were obviously
the chief avian items of food (and probably still are) of the local
Eskimos. The next most abundant bones are those of Pallas’s murre,
Uria lomvia arra, the white winged scoter, Melanitta deglandi, and
the Pacific and King eiders, Somateria v-nigra and Somateria spect-
abilis. Fifteen species in all are represented in the Cape Denbeigh
material, a list of which is as follows:

MAY 15, 1934 FRIEDMAN: BIRD BONES FROM ALASKA 237

Gavia adamsi (Gray) Yellow-billed Loon
Gavia stellata (Pontoppidan) Red-throated Loon
Phalacrocorax urile (Gmelin) Red-faced Cormorant
Branta canadensis minima Ridgway Cackling Goose
Histrionicus histrionicus pacificus Brooks Western Harlequin Duck
Somateria v-nigra Gray Pacifie Eider
Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus) King Eider

Melanitta deglandi (Bonaparte) White-winged Scoter
Melanttta perspicillata (Linnaeus) Surf Scoter

Oidemia americana Swainson American Scoter
Logopus lagopus alascensits Swarth Alaska Ptarmigan
Lagopus rupestris subsp. Rock Ptarmigan
Uria lomvia arra (Pallas) | Pallas’s Murre
Cepphus columba Pallas Pigeon Guillemot
Fratercula corniculata (Naumann) Horned Puffin

BIRD BONES FROM SEWARD PENINSULA

In 1929 Mr. H. B. Collins, Jr., excavated an old Eskimo village at
Kowieruk, three miles east of Imaruk Basin, Seward Peninsula. This
site was poor in bird bones but revealed fragments of three species:

Gavia adamsi (Gray) Yellow-billed Loon
Clangula hyemalis (Linnaeus) Old-squaw
Histrionicus histrionicus pacificus Brooks Western Harlequin Duck

BIRD BONES FROM BONASILA

In the course of some diggings in an old midden at Bonasila Dr.
Hrdlicka unearthed a few bird bones representing the following three
species.

CYGNUS COLUMBIANUS (Ord) Whistling Swan

Two broken humeri and one femur.

BRANTA CANADENSIS MINIMA Ridgway Cackling Goose

One humerus and one femur.

MELANITTA DEGLANDI (Bonaparte) White winged Scoter

One humerus.

238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

SCIENTIFIC NEWS AND NOTES

Prepared by Science Service
Nores

Meeting of the American Chemical Society.—At the spring meeting of the
American Chemical Society, held in St. Petersburg, Florida, March 26 to
30, papers were presented by the following Washington scientists: J. EH.
Apvams, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; Gkorcn M. Baur, Bureau of
Chemistry and Soils; FREDERICK Batrs, Bureau of Standards; F. G.
BRICKWEDDH, Bureau of Standards; C. A. BRownn, Bureau of Chemistry
and Soils; C. K. Cuarx, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; C. C. CoNcANNON,
U. 8. Department of Commerce; J. M. Datuavauie, U.S. Public Health
Service; EK. L. DemMmon, Forest Service; P. H. Emmett, Bureau of Chemistry
and Soils; EK. J. Fox, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; W. A. GrERSsDoRFF,
U. 8S. Department of Agriculture; R. E. Grpson, Carnegie Institution of
Washington; R. M. Hann, National Institute of Health; R. W. HaARKNEss,
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; T. H. Harris, Bureau of Chemistry and
Soils; H. P. Hotman, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; C. S. Hupson,
National Institute of Health; H. S. Issey, Bureau of Standards; EH. F.
Kouman, National Canners Association; C. H. Kunsman, Bureau of Chem-
istry and Soils; H. H. Morrrern, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; EK. K.
Newson, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; E. M. Netson, Bureau of Chem-
istry and Soils; R. A. NeLtson, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; 8. Paxin,
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; G. N. Puttey, Bureau of Chemistry and
Soils; C. B. Purvus, National Institute of Health; D. A. Rrynoups, Bureau
of Mines; N. H. Sansorn, National Canners Association; R. R. SAYERs,
U.S. Public Health Service; W. C. Smiru, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils,
IF. H. THurser, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; J. W. TURRENTINE,
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; H. W. Von Lorsecket, Bureau of Chemistry
and Soils; J. R. Winston, Bureau of Plant Industry, and W. P. YAnrt,
U.S. Public Health Service.

Johns Hopkins University —The university circular covering 1934 sum-
mer courses announces the following Washington scientists as special lec-
turers for the Summer Research Conferences on Chemical Physics: F. G.
BRICKWEDDE, Bureau of Standards; and 8. B. Henpricxs and L. R. Max-
WELL, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

The Hillebrand prize.—The Hillebrand prize of the Chemical Society of
Washington for the year 1933 has been awarded to the late Dr. Epwarp
Wicut WASHBURN for the discovery of the first practical method of separat-
ing the isotopes of hydrogen. This discovery, namely, the electrolytic
method of separation, has made possible the subsequent research into the
properties of the isotopes of hydrogen, and has thus initiated almost a new
era in chemistry, consequent upon the differences in the chemical and physi-
cal properties of these isotopes and their compounds. 3

Biological Survey.—Dr. Jay N. Daruine on March 19 took the oath
of office as chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey, U. 8. Department of
Agriculture. Early this year he was awarded the Medal of the Outdoor Life
Magazine for outstanding service in the field of wild-life conservation. On
June 14, 1933, he was appointed by Secretary WALLACE as a member of the

MAY 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 239

Advisory Board, Migratory Bird Treaty Act. He has also served as a mem-
ber of the President’s Committee on Wild-Life Restoration.

A recently revised map of the Canadian northwest designates a hitherto
unnamed bay on Great Bear Lake as Preble Bay, in honor of E. A. PREBLE
of the Bureau of Biological Survey, an early explorer of this region. Mr.
Preble had previously been similarly honored when an island 25 miles long
in Great Slave Lake was named Preble Island. In North America Fauna No..
27, “A Biological Investigation of the Athabaska-Mackenzie Region,” pub-
lished by the Bureau in 1908, Mr. Preble not only provided the first exten-
sive biological knowledge of this region but also made important contribu-
tions to its geography.

Dr. W. B. Bruty spoke before a Recreation Conference held March 16
to 18 at the Massachusetts State College, in Amherst, on ‘‘The Biological
Survey’s Contribution to Recreation.”

On March 3, F. C. Lincoun, of the Bureau of Biological Survey, spoke
at the annual meeting of the Wilderness Club at Philadelphia, Pa., on The
distribution and migration of some eastern waterfowl. Mr. Lincoln was
recently appointed one of five members of the Waterfowl Committee of the
National Association of Audubon Societies.

Bureau of Standards.—Dr. RAauLEeicH GILCHRIST left on March 14 to
attend international congresses on chemistry in Paris and Madrid, as official
delegate of the Department of Commerce and of the National Research
Council. At the Madrid congress he presented a paper by himself and Dr.
EK. WicuHeErs, also of the Bureau’s staff, on A new system of analytical
chemistry for the platinum metals.

Children’s Bureau, Department of Labor.—An extensive program has been
undertaken for the location of children who are undernourished or in need
of medical care. This was first suggested at a national conference called
last fall after information assembled by the Children’s Bureau had shown
many children to be showing effects of the depression. With the aid of
C.W.A. funds, thirty-eight states and Puerto Rico set up child health nurs-
ing services and employed approximately 2,300 nurses, including 180 super-
visors. The Bureau has made available the services of five physicians to
assist the states in the development of the program and has prepared special
examination forms for use by physicians making examinations of children
suspected of being undernourished.

In a majority of the states the lead in organizing the child health recov-
ery program was taken by the state health departments, in a few by the
state medical associations, the Academy of Pediatrics, or the state relief
administrations. Support of the work has been voted by the American Child
Health Association, which lent the part-time services of its medical director
for three months, and by the executive board of the American Academy of
Pediatrics. Lay organizations of men and women are also assisting.

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution. R. H. Mans-
FIELD, who has been stationed at the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory in
Peru since September 26, 1932, left the Observatory the latter part of April
for Buenos Aires whence he will proceed to Capetown, South Africa. After
comparing instruments at the University of Capetown, he will make his way
up the east coast of Africa to Aden, Port Sudan, and Suez, securing en route
magnetic observations at selected stations previously occupied by observers
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The principal object of this ex-

240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 5

pedition is to obtain data for the study of secular variation in the region
traversed.

O. W. TorRESON accompanied by Mrs. Torrzson, left Washington on
April 6, 1934, for Peru, where he will join the staff of the Huancayo Mag-
netic Observatory.

Dr. B. J. F. SCHONLAND, Senior Lecturer in Physics, University of Cape-
town, South Africa, and well known for his investigations of lightning,
arrived in New York on April 8, for a ten-week visit in the United States.
He plans to spend the first six weeks at the Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism. He is to present several papers on the results of some of his recent
work at the scientific meetings which will be held in Washington the latter
part of April. Before his departure in June, he will visit a number of univer-
sities and scientific institutions in the eastern and middle-western states.

Bureau of Fishertes.—At the invitation of the deputy governor of the
Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, Jonn S. Srncuarr, Dr. P. 8. Gatr-
SOFF, in charge of oyster investigation for the United States Bureau of
Fisheries, presented at the meeting called by the reserve bank, March 27,
1934, an analysis of the present conditions in the oyster industry with spe-
cial reference to New Jersey.

Dr. GautsorF regards the drop in demand for oysters and low prices
as being responsible for the present critical situation. Planting operations
in Delaware Bay begin in May and end on June 30, but on account of the
general economic situation and especially because of the closure of several
local banks, the oystermen are unable to obtain credit to finance planting
operations. Steps are being taken to obtain credit from the Federal reserve
bank.

The sound policy, adopted by the state in maintaining the public seed
oyster beds from which planters are permitted to dredge seed oysters for
cultivation, is a guarantee that natural oyster resources of the state will not
be depleted. This conclusion is corroborated by the fact that from 1880 until
1929 oyster production in New Jersey steadily increased, whereas, in the
Chesapeake Bay it materially declined.

At the request of the New York State Conservation Commissioner,
LirHGow OsBoRNB, a conference was held by the representatives of the state
and officers of the United States Bureau of Fisheries at Cambridge, Mass.,
on March 21, for the purpose of laying plans for a cooperative investigation
of the marine fisheries of New York. As a result of the very definite increase
in interest among anglers, particularly in the fishery resources of the marine
district, the conservation department is considering the possibility of under-
taking an intensive study of the fish supply in order to provide for adequate
utilization as well as conservation. Dr. EMmMEtine Moors, chief aquatic
biologist of the conservation department, presented the tentative plans of
the state’s investigation, and R. A. Nussirt, in charge of the Bureau’s inves-
tigations in the Middle Atlantic section, discussed at length the findings of
four years of research by himself and several assistants in this field.

PERSONAL ITEM

Desert M. Lirrus, for the past five years in charge of the Weather
Bureau’s station at Oakland, Calif., has been promoted to the chief of the
aerological division of the Bureau.

CONTENTS |

Original Papers

Botany.—Microsporum of cats causing ringworm in man. sf Cua
and ALINE FENNER KEMPTON................. oe be

' Paleobotany.—A walnut from the Cleeaperee Miocene. -Epwanp ; V

Ornithology.—Bird bones from old Eskimo ruins in Alaska. :
SMAN 5 bot WE, oo ge ee

,
4

Scurntiric Notes anv NEWS iis Joi. 6 is. ee

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals.

ait - oes f:

. STEVENSON __ -F. G. Brickwzppk
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY ‘BUREAU OF STANDARDS

~ ssgoctaTE EDITORS

ue F “

- Harotp Morrison
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

W. W. Rusey

. GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY

J. R. Swanton
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

i ar ‘Manas, Wisconsts

oe
one
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JOURNAL

OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 24 JUNE 15, 1934 No. 6

PALEONTOLOGY .—Early Tertiary species of gastropods from the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec. JuLIA GARDNER, U. 8S. Geological
Survey and Epgar Bow tgs, Johns Hopkins University.

Among some collections made in Mexico a number of years ago,
was a small gastropod assemblage of four species, all of them un-
familiar. They had nothing in common with any known East Coast or
Gulf fauna and were put aside in the hope that at some future time
check material might come to light. A few months ago, in a random
survey of the Federal collections, Mr. F. E. Turner of the University
of California came upon them and commented on their extraordinary
resemblance to middle Eocene (Domengine) species from the Simi
Valley in southern California. A closer comparison further revealed
the faunal similarity which is the more significant because the species
are not generalized but are apparently specialized and short ranging
types. Although certain elements in the Domengine fauna are present
in the Umpqua formation of Oregon, there is no former record of the
extension of the Domengine sea south of California. So close, how-
ever, is the resemblance between the Chiapas faunule and that from
the Simi Valley, distant more than 1700 miles in an air line, that a
common shore line may be reasonably postulated.

The Chiapas locality is about 12 miles east-north-east of Sayula and
less than 10 miles behind the mountain front which faces the Atlantic
Ocean. There is no evidence in the present material that the Atlantic
had broken through, but the inter-oceanic barrier must have been ex-
tremely narrow.

The sketch map (Fig. 1) indicates the outcrop from which the col-
lection was made.

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received
March 5, 1934,

241

sue

242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

TPN tly td,
CUTE ess

Fig. 1.—Locality 1—Simi Valley, California; 2—12 miles east-north-east
Sayula, Chiapas, Mexico.

AMPULLINAE

CERNINA Gray
1840. Gray, J. E. Syn. Cont. Brit. Mus., 42: 147.

Type: Natica fluctuata G. B. Sowerby (Recent in the south Pacific).

The type of Cernina is a large, not very heavy, inflated shell with a de-
pressed spire and with a widely expanded and obliquely produced aperture.
The inner margin of the aperture is broadly constricted at the base of the
body. The parietal callous is very heavy but thins gradually and is spread
over the body wall with no sharply defined limit excepting at the extreme an-
terior portion where it merges into the sharp, narrowly reverted, anterior
margin of the aperture. The genotype is the only living representative of a
family which was widespread during the first half of the Tertiary, both in

JUNE 15, 1934 GARDNER AND BOWLES: EARLY SPECIES OF GASTROPODS 243

the Tethyan sea and in the cooler waters. Stewart? in his discussion of the
Ampullinae recognized the need of a new group name to include “‘Natica”’
hannibali Dickerson: ‘‘Globularia hannabali Dickerson might be cited as an
Eocene Cernina but it has a much heavier callous extending over the parietal
region with a distinct boundary. I think it will prove to represent a separate
group of Globularia, not directly related to Cernzna, the latter having proba-
bly developed from Globularia in the Miocene or later.’’ The importance of
the group is increased by the recognition of an allied member many hundred
miles to the south of the form described by Dickerson.

EocERNINA Gardner and Bowles, new section

Type: Natica hannabali Dickerson. Middle Eocene (Umpqua formation)
of Oregon. ?

Shell heavy; obliquely ovate. Spire depressed. Nucleus not preserved but
certainly small and paucispiral. Post nuclear whorls increasing very rapidly
in diameter. Aperture pyriform, expanded and obliquely produced anteriorly,
the line of division between the outer lip and the parietal callous indicated
by a shallow groove. Parietal callous heavy with a sharply defined outer
limit, almost or entirely sealing the umbilicus and merging into the slightly
reverted anterior margin of the aperture. Sculpture restricted to incremen-
tals with occasional resting stages.

The section is founded upon the type species from the Umpqua formation
of Oregon and its variants in the Domengine formation of southern Cali-
fornia and a new species from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

Ampullina sphaerica Deshayes from the upper Eocene of the Paris Basin
shares with the American forms the depressed spire, heavy shell, and parietal
callous.

Cernina (EKocernina) chiapasensis Gardner and Bowles, n. sp.
Hie. Zona.

Shell subglobose, smoothly inflated; spire depressed. Nuclear whorls not
preserved but doubtless small in size and few in number. Post-nuclear whorls
4 to 5, increasing rapidly in diameter; body whorl largely enveloping the
earlier volutions, inflated, obtusely shouldered. Sculpture consisting only of
fine incremental lines, most evident on the body whorl. Sutures regular,
clearly defined, and deeply impressed. Aperture wide and flaring, anteriorly
produced. Parietal callous heavy. Umbilicus almost or entirely covered by
the encroaching callous.

Dimensions: Height, 36 millimeters; greatest diameter, 38+ millimeters
(aperture of specimen incomplete).

Holotype: U.S. National Museum No. 373046.

Paratype: U.S. National Museum No. 373047.

Type locality: U. S. Geol. Survey Sta. No. 13230, about 12 miles east-
north-east of Sayula, Chiapas, Mexico. Eocene.

The closest analogue of this species is Ampullina hannibali Dickerson’ from
2 Stewart, R. B. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Proc. 78: 331. 1926.

3 DickERSON, R. E. California Acad. Sci. Proc., ser. 4, 1: no. 4, p. 119. pl. 12, figs.
Sa, 5b. 1914. (as Natica hannibalt).

244. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 24, NO. 6

the middle Eocene (Umpqua formation) of Oregon, and the variants in the
Domingine of the Simi Valley, California. The West Coast species differs
from A. chiapasensis, however, in its less inflated and more obliquely shoul-
dered body whorl; its higher spire; its more flaring aperture; and the heavier
callous which completely seals the umbilicus. The apparent perforation in
the umbilicus of the holotype is, however, increased by the broken margin
of the callous.

Cerina chiapasensis is represented by the holotype and a smaller paratype,
measuring 28 millimeters in height and 26.5 millimeters in maximum diame-
ter.

AMAURELLINA ‘“‘Bayle”’ Fischer 1885

1885. Fischer, Paul, Manuel de Conchyliologie. 8: 766. 1885..
Type by monotypy: Ampullaria spirata Lamarck. Eocene of the Paris
Basin.

Amaurellina malinchae Gardner and Bowles, n. sp.
Fig. 5.

Shell of medium size. Spire more than one-third as high as the entire
shell; scalariform. Nuclear whorls not well preserved or clearly differentiated
from the conch. Post-nuclear whorls probably 5 in number, regularly increas-
ing in size, those of the spire rudely trapezoidal in outline. Body whorl angu-
lar posteriorly, elongated and tapering anteriorly. Shoulders sharply cari-
nate, sloping inward from the pinched and elevated keel to the distinct but
not conspicuous sutures; space between the suture and the keel irregularly
threaded with about 8 spiral lirae overridden by fine, crowded incremental
laminae. Aperture crushed in the type but apparently long and narrow, an-
teriorly produced. Parietal callous heavy, almost—and possibly in a perfect
specimen, entirely—sealing the umbilicus, merging into the margin of the
outer lip.

Dimensions: Height, 39 millimeters; greatest diameter, 24 millimeters.

Holotype: U. S. National Museum No. 373050.

Type locality: U. S. Geol. Survey Sta. No. 13230, about 12 miles east-
north-east of Sayula, Chiapas, Mexico. Eocene.

Amaurellina moragat Stewart’ from the Tejon of California is more in-
flated and more ovate in form, and the whorls are less sharply angulated.
Amaurellina moragai lajollaensis Stewart,® from the Domengine horizon is
less inflated than the Tejon form, but the whorls are not so sharply keeled
asin A. malinchae. Amaurellina malinchae is known only from the holotype.

Amaurellina cortezi Gardner and Bowles, n. sp.
Figs. 7, 9.
Shell heavy, squat-ovate; spire moderately high for the group, obtusely

scalariform. Whorls about 6 in number, regularly increasing in size, obtusely
shouldered. Sutures distinct, impressed. Shell smooth excepting for an in-

4Strewart, R. B. Op. cit. 334. pl. 18, fig. 3.
5 Stewart, R. B. Op. cit. 335. pl. 28, fig. 2.

JUNE 15, 1934 GARDNER AND BOWLES: EARLY SPECIES OF GASTROPODS 245

eremental sculpture which is unusually strong, sharp, and regular. Aperture
semilunate; outer lip entire. Inner wall covered by a heavy callous com-
pletely sealing the umbilical opening.

Dimensions: Height, 32.5 millimeters; greatest diameter, 27.0 millimeters.

Holotype: U. 8. National Museum No. 373048.

Paratypes: U. 8. National Museum No. 373049.

Type locality: U. 8. Geol. Survey Sta. No. 13230, about 12 miles east-
north-east of Sayula, Chiapas, Mexico. Eocene.

There are 18 paratypes of this species in the Chiapas collection. Many of
these are broken or poorly preserved and the largest is 46 millimeters high.
Amaurellina clarki Stewart,’ so abundant in the Domengine of the Simi Val-
ley, differs from A. cortezi in the relatively higher and more turrited spire,
the less inflated and more produced body whorl and the less expanded aper-
ture.

VOLUTIDAE

Volutocristata Gardner and Bowles, n. gen.

Genotype: Volutocristata chiapasensis Gardner and Bowles. Middle
Eocene of Chiapas, Mexico.

Shell coniform; spire depressed but the apex a rather prominent boss;
nuclear whorls not well preserved, but certainly small and few in number;
post nuclear whorls about 5 in the genotype, the later whorls wound close
to the tubercled periphery of the preceding volution; body conic, slightly
concave laterally; abruptly shouldered; apical surface ornately sculptured;
early whorls with 11 to 13 prominent axial ribs which on the later whorls
are reduced to erect peripheral tubercles evanescing on the body within the
posterior third ; incremental striae crowded and rather sharp; axial sculpture
overridden by fine, crowded, somewhat irregular lirae; base of body ob-
liquely sulcate, the grooves more closely spaced anteriorly; sutures distinct,
undulated by the peripheral nodes of the preceding volution; aperture nar-
row, elongate with subparallel margins; outer lip entire with a simple, bev-
elled edge; columellar wall plicate, the anterior fold the strongest and the
most oblique, the 4 or 5 behind it less sharply defined and irregular in size
and spacing and almost at right angles to the axis of the shell; all of the folds
deep-seated and visible only in the broken shell or in moulds; parietal callous
heavy, washed backward over the preceding volution in the adult whorls;
anterior fasciole narrow, the terminal notch shallow.

This genus has been erected to accommodate two similar and remarkable
volutes, Plejona lajollaensis Hanna’ from the Domengine (middle Eocene)
of California and Volutocristata chiapasensis, the genotype, from the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec. They are characterized by the conspicuously coniform out-
line, depressed spire, crested periphery and the very narrow aperture with
sub-parallel margins.

‘Stewart, R. B. Op. cit. 336. pl. 26, figs. 8, 9.

7 HANNA, M. A. Univ. California Dept. Geology, Bull. 16: no. 8, p. 320. pl. 52,
wigs. 1,2. 1927, ““Pejona’”’ by typographical error.

246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

Figs. 2-13.—For explanation see opposite page.

JUNE 15, 1984 GARDNER AND BOWLES: EARLY SPECIES OF GASTROPODS 247

The genus Volutoconus of Crosse® though suggesting a coniform shell in-
cludes species with a more typically volutoid aperture, rounded shoulders
and an oliviform rather than coniform outline.

The form most closely resembling Volutocristata pictorially is Diploconus
crassus Douville? from the Cardita beaumonti beds of northern India.|

The genus Diploconus was erected by Douvillé!® to cover two species, the
genotype D. elegans, a relatively high-spired form, and D. crassus. Diplo-
conus was referred to the Fusidae in which Douvillé included Turbinella,
but in his discussion, he emphasized the characters common to the Strom-
bidae and recognized in Dzploconus an indicator of a common ancestry for
the fusids and strombs. Douvillé’s figures suggest that the outer lip in adult
Diploconus is pulled slightly backward over the preceding whorl as it is in
the strombs, but this is not true of the American forms and may not be true
of the Indian, for the material figured by Douvillé is mostly in the form of
incomplete moulds. The columellar folds of the Indian species seem stronger
and more oblique but this difference is probably more apparent than real
for the folds of the American species are deep seated and can be adequately
observed only in the broken shell. No genetic relationship between the In-
dian and American faunas can be surely established on the material avail-
able, but such a relationship is a possibility of unusual interest as it involves
the early migration routes of the Tethyan faunas. The Tethyan, the ancestral
Mediterranean, sea was presumably closed on the west by the “‘Cathaysia”’
of Grabau, and was thus isolated from the equatorial Pacific, though it may
have been open to the Atlantic by way of northern Africa. Forms similar to
Diploconus are unknown in either the fossil or the Recent Japanese faunas.

Among the American volutes, the closest relationship may perhaps be
found with Volutocorbis Dall, a group remarkably prolific in the American
Kocene. Variants of the genotype, Volutilithes limopsis Conrad from the

Fig. 2-3. Cernina (Eocernina) chiapasensis Gardner and Bowles. 2. Apertural view
of holotype, X1. 3. Apertural view of paratype, X1. Fig. 4. C. (Hocernina) species cf.
C. hannabali (Dickerson) from the Simi Valley,!! California. Apertural view, <1.
Fig. 5. Amaurellina malinchae Gardner and Bowles. Apertural view of holotype,
X1. Fig. 6. A. clarki Stewart from the Simi Valley, California. Apertural view, <1.
Fig. 7. A. cortezi Gardner and Bowles. Apertural view of holotype, Xl. Fig. 8. A.
clarki Stewart from the Simi Valley, California. Rear view of individual shown in
Figure 5, X1. Fig. 9. A. cortezi Gardner and Bowles. Rear view of individual
shown in Figure 6, X1. Fig. 10-12. Volutocristata chiapasensis Gardner and Bowles.
10. Apical view of paratype, X1. 11. Apertural view of holotype, X1. 12. Apertural
view of holotype broken to expose columellar plications, X1. Fig. 13. V. lajollaensis
(Hanna) from the Simi Valley, California. Apertural view, X1.

§ Crosse, H. Jour. p—E Concuy.., ser. 3, 19: 306. 1871.
® Douvitit, Henri. Les Couches a Cardita Beaumonti. Geol. Survey of India,
Mem., Paleontologia Indica, new ser., 10: 38, pl. 7, figs. 8,9. 1929.

weldem:p. 136:

11 All of the specimens from the Simi Valley are from U. 8. Geol. Survey Sta. No.
12632, collected by W. P. Woodring on the north side of the Simi Valley, on the east
side of Las Llajas Canyon, 6850 feet South 173° East from Bench Mark 2165, Ventura
County, California.

248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

Gulf Eocene, are widespread in the lower Claiborne of Texas and northern
Mexico. There are numerous obvious differences between the genera, the
most significant, perhaps, being the more regular and stronger plications
upon the pillar of Volutocorbis, which unlike those of Volutocristata, emerge
at the aperture. In Volutocorbis, however, as in Volutocristata, the parietal
wash is extended backward upon the preceding whorl in adult individuals,
and the two groups are similar in the direction of the growth lines, the groov-
ing upon the base of the body, the characters of the anterior fasciole, and
the general sculpture pattern.

Volutocristata chiapasensis Gardner and Bowles, n. sp.
Figs. 10-12

Shell of moderate dimensions and rather heavy, coniform. Spire depressed
but the apex a prominent boss. Body elongate-conic, gently tapering and
slightly concave, laterally. Nuclear whorls imperfectly preserved and differ-
entiated but certainly small and few in number. Post-nuclear whorls about 5,
rapidly increasing in size, conspicuously shouldered. Post-nuclear axial
sculpture gradually changing from narrow ribs continuous from suture to
suture on the early whorls to prominent peripheral nodes on the later, the
number running from 11 to 13 to the whorl; fine spiral striae superposed
upon the axials, strongest relatively and most regular upon the early volu-
tions; base of body obliquely sulcate, the grooves more closely spaced an-
teriorly; sutures incised, undulated by the axials of the preceding whorl.
Aperture narrow, the margins sub-parallel. Outer lip simple, the edge bev-
elled. Pillar wall plicate, the folds deep seated and not emergent at the aper-
ture; anterior fold the strongest and the most oblique; the 4 or 5 folds be-
hind it irregular and approximately at right angles to the axis of the shell.
Parietal wash moderately heavy, transgressing the shoulder on the last two
volutions and partially overriding the peripheral nodes. Anterior fasciole
narrow and inconspicuous; the terminal notch very shallow. | :

Dimensions: Height, 39.5 millimeters; greatest diameter, 23.5 milli-
meters.

Holotype: U.S. National Museum No. 373044.

Paratype: U. 8. National Museum No. 373045.

Type locality: U. S. Geol Survey Sta. No. 18230.

Volutocristata chiapasensis is represented by the holotype and a broken
paratype consisting of the apical portion only. The maximum diameter of
the paratype is 34 millimeters and the axial nodes total 55 or 56. Volutocris-
tata lajollaensis (Hanna) from the Domengine of southern California is the
only known American species remotely resembling specifically our Mexican
form. It differs in the relatively broader body whorl; the less sharply angu-
lated keel; the less prominently elevated but more acute peripheral nodes;
the more posterior suture which follows closely the periphery of the later
whorls rather than falling a little in front of the periphery as it does in V.
chiapasensis; and the sharper, more uniform and more regularly spaced colu-
mellar plications.

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 249

PALEONTOLOGY .—WNew Carboniferous invertebrates—IV.1 GEORGE
H. Girty, U.S. Geological Survey.

This paper contains descriptions of one brachiopod from western
Texas, five gastropods from Colorado, and three gastropods from
Arkansas.

Cryptacanthia? robusta n. sp.
Figs. 1-7.

Shell rather large for the genus, subpentagonal in outline, highly inequi-
valve with reversed curvature, the pedicle valve having a pronounced fold
and the brachial valve a pronounced sinus.

The pedicle valve is widest at the mid-length or just above and somewhat
emarginate in front with an outline more or less conspicuously pentagonal.
Longitudinally, this valve is gently arched toward the anterior end, but
shows a rapidly increasing curvature toward the beak which rather strik-
ingly overhangs the brachial valve. Transversely, the median part is more
or less planate at the anterior end, the flattened zone contracting posteriorly
to form a narrowly rounded ridge which terminates in the small incurved
beak. From this flattened median part the lateral slopes descend steeply and
to an uncommon length, causing the valve to be correspondingly convex.
The lateral slopes are flattened or even somewhat concave and they seem to
flare slightly in the region of the cardinal angles. On some specimens the
descent from the fold is so abrupt close to the anterior margin as to produce
two short but pronounced grooves and to give that structure, which would
otherwise be undefined, distinct boundaries and a quadrate shape. The beak
in my specimens is imperfect but it appears to have been truncated by a
round foramen without any collar formed by the introverted shell margin
adjacent.

The brachial valve is subquadrate in outline and moderately convex. It is
strongly and more or less abruptly deflected at the sides and across the front,
leaving a median area (for half or two-thirds of the length) which is but
slightly arched. The sinus, which makes its appearance back of the middle
of the valve, is in the beginning a narrow groove, but it widens rapidly and
somewhat abruptly, the bottom, at the same time, becoming more rounded
and at the anterior margin almost planate. There, the part included in the
sinus projects as a linguiform extension which is folded downward at a strong
angle, one, however, appreciably greater than 90 degrees. The parts on either.
side of the sinus are also deflected downward, though less strongly than the
sinus itself, with an almost truncating effect. As an extreme expression this
valve is planate over the posterior part and abruptly flexed along three sides,
so that the planate area has a certain definition. The lateral and anterior
folds in conjunction with the broad deep sinus, cause this area to terminate
on either side in prominences almost like little mounds.

Of internal structures little is known except that the pedicle valve is pro-
vided with dental plates and the brachial valve with a strong median sep-
tum. The shell substance is finely punctate.

_} For the previous paper in this series see this JouRNAL 21: 390-397. 1921. Pub-
fora permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received Sept.

250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

C. robusta so closely resembles Cryptacanthia compacta as to raise a doubt
whether it is more than a very robust form of that species, yet the facts re-
garding both are so incompletely known and in certain respects so at vari-
ance as to suggest that they belong to distinct genera. The possibility that
they belong to different genera is opposed by their close external similarity.
Such a resemblance would mean little or nothing between many species but
in this instance it is significant because the configuration which these two
possess in common is highly exceptional and distinctive. On the other hand,
the original description of C’. compacta does not mention the dental plates
and median septum which are shown by the present species, and it does give
the character of the brachidium whose characters in the present species have
not been determined.

C’. compacta is one of the rarest of Carboniferous brachiopods and no first
hand description of it has been published since 1868 until very recently.
Dunbar and Condra, however, redescribe the genus with some additional
characters among which, significant in the present connection, are the pres-
ence of dental lamellae in the pedicle valve (a character which could be pred-
icated with reasonable assurance as it is found in all or nearly all Carbonifer-
ous Terebratuloids) and the absence of a median septum in the brachial
valve. I hesitate to challenge the character last mentioned and at the same
time cannot accept it unconditionally for the following reasons. I have ex-
amined specimens of C. compacta, especially one from the Murphysboro
quadrangle (station 6129) in which a median septum certainly appears to
be present, though it may not have the form of a thin high plate. Further-
more, the specimen which supplied the structural characters described by
Dunbar and Condra and which in their sections seem to afford conclusive
evidence that a septum was absent, came from New Mexico and is strikingly
unlike the authentic specimen shown by the original publication. Their fig-
ures (p. 309) represent a shell that is much more elongate, that is ovate in
outline instead of pentagonal, and that has a moderately convex instead of
a nearly flat brachial valve. On these grounds one might infer that their
specimen did not belong to C. compacta and might not belong to Cryptacan-
thia at all. These differences are less marked, however, if the figures on p. 309
are compared with figures on plate 37 representing specimens from Kansas
and Illinois. The fact that a median septum was not mentioned in the origi-
nal description cannot be taken as corroborating the observations of Dunbar
and Condra for the original description also failed to mention the much more
obvious dental lamellae.

If Cryptacanthia did indeed lack a median septum in the brachial valve,
the present species can hardly remain in the same genus as C. compacta.
In the presence of this septum it suggests the genus Heterelasma, not to
mention Girtyella and others, but in configuration it is the reverse of Hetere-
lasma whose characters in this category are singularly misrepresented in the
American Zittel. In that usually accurate work the genus is summarized as

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 251

comprising ‘‘smooth Dielasmids with a ventral fold and a dorsal sinus.”’ In
point of fact, the transverse curvature of the ventral valve in Heterelasma
is concave, in other words, it has a sinus not a fold, and that of the brachial
valve is convex, but the convex curvature is reversed in the anterior part
which is indented by a more or less conspicuous sinus. The present species
which really has a fold in the ventral valve and a sinus in the dorsal valve
might well belong in Heterelasma as the genus is represented in Zittel, but
not as it is in fact. If it does not belong in Heterelasma by reason of the re-
versed curvature of the valves, or in Cryptacanthia by reason of the median
septum in the brachial valve, its generic affinities are hard to discover. In
configuration it recalls the Jurassic genus Glossothyris and in default of a
suitable generic locus the term Glossothyropsis might be used for it.

In its specific relations as already pointed out C. robusta greatly resembles
Cryptacanthia compacta and when the doubtful points are cleared up, it may
belong in the same genus. As a summary of the differences at present known,
aside from those of generic significance, C’. robusta is much larger; the lateral
outlines appear to contract more gradually forward so that the anterior out-
line is broader than it is in C. compacta; the two valves appear to be much less
unequal in convexity, the pedicle valve being somewhat lower and not so
angular along the median line, and the brachial valve not quite so planate;
and the fold and sinus are higher and conspicuously quadrate in outline.
These differences can not be wholly vouched for, as the original description
and figures of C’. compacta are inadequate in several respects, and as speci-
mens are rare. I have been able to examine only 10 or 12 specimens, all of
them small and more or less broken. Their imperfections tend to vitiate the
identification, but it is probable that they belong to C. compacta. The fact
that C. robusta occurs in a widely unlike fauna of much later geologic age
adds significance to the differences already known and gives promise of oth-
ers when our knowledge is more complete.

C. robusta occurs associated with Pugnaz bisulcata, which it resembles so
closely in configuration that on a hasty examination the two species might
readily be confused; the resemblance, of course, is only superficial and
scarcely that, inasmuch as it exists only through a reversal of the valves,
the pedicle in this species resembling the brachial valve in that and vice
versa.

Delaware Mountain formation (Permian); True Canyon, 7 miles north-
west of 7-Heart Gap, Culberson County, Texas (station 6452).

Pleurotomaria worthenioides n. sp.
Figs. 8, 9.

Shell small, conical, turreted, consisting of 5 or 6 volutions. Apical angle
less than a right angle but varying with different specimens. Aperture rhom-
bic. In the final volution the peripheral region is occupied by two large
rounded carinae which inclose between them a flattened and much depressed

252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

zone containing the slitband. The lower of the two carinae is almost basal and
is slightly smaller and less prominent than the upper. The surface between
the suture and the upper carina is broad, strongly oblique, and nearly flat
though it is slightly tumid near the suture and more or less spreading as it
joins the carina. The lower surface is gently convex and nearly horizontal
except that near the axis it bends strongly upwards. The whorls embrace
up to the lower carina which is concealed in some specimens and partly
exposed in others. The upper carina on the other hand forms a conspicuous
projection and lends the shell its turreted appearance. The axis seems to be
imperforate.

The lateral surface is marked by 6 or 7 fine, sharp, revolving lirae which
diminish in size from above downwards and are separated by interspaces
wider than the lirae themselves. About 4 similar lirae, but finer and more
crowded, occur on the upper carina and two or three others like them on the
lower carina. The lower surface is marked by about 10 revolving lirae which
are coarser and stronger than those of the lateral surface, and stand rather
more than their own diameter apart. The interspaces gradually diminish
toward the axis and the lirae decrease in size and strength in the same direc-
tion. The sculpture also comprises fine, regular lamellose transverse lirae.
On the lateral surface they decrease in size individually from above down-
ward and are perhaps a little more delicate than the revolving lirae and pos-
sibly a little more closely arranged. They form with the revolving lirae a
regular cancellated sculpture marked at the intersections by minute but con-
spicuous nodes. The transverse lirae are well developed upon the upper
carina, cancellating the revolving lirae that occur there, and they reappear
on the lower carina. Over the basal surface they are a minor feature. If well
developed or well preserved they are sharp and clear, but much more delicate
and much more closely arranged than the revolving lirae which they cross
as crenulations rather than as nodes. The slitband occupies nearly the whole
of the depression between the two carinae and is defined by lamellose lines
partway up its sides. The slitband is divided longitudinally by a slender re-
volving lira set with minute, closely arranged, uniform nodes, whereas each
of the divisions is subdivided by a lira more or less inferior in size. In the
slitband the transverse lirae appear as delicate close-set lunettes which on
many specimens are somewhat difficult to make out and are chiefly apparent
by reason of the nodes that they produce in crossing the median lira.

On the lateral surface the growth lines have a strong backward trend from
the suture and a slight convexity toward the aperture. In crossing the slit-
band of course they are conspicuously arched with the convex side facing
backward. On the lower surface their general direction is about transverse
but they retreat into a broad shallow concave arc just below the lower carina
and make a short shallow convex arc in the axial region.

This species is not exactly rare; about 25 specimens, large and small, have
been examined, but only a few of the large ones are well preserved, whereas
the small ones are identified with less accuracy. Some of the variation ob-
served is probably due to imperfect preservation. That the revolving lirae
vary somewhat in number and arrangement scarcely need be specified. In
some specimens revolving lirae seem to be obsolete on the carinae, the trans-
verse lirae alone being distinguishable. The carinae then appear flat on top
instead of rounded. The delicate though sharp lunettes in the slitband are

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 253

more often invisible than seen, and the transverse lines of the lower surface
may be sought for in vain. Probably they are fully developed, but are sub-
dued to the strength of growth lines, or obscured by abrasion. On a few small
specimens from Woolsey, Ark. (station 2849) the upper carina is uncom-
monly thin and prominent.

Brentwood limestone member of the Bloyd shale (early Pennsylvanian) ;
SW sec. 27, T13N, R32W, Winslow quadrangle, Arkansas (station 3733).

Euconospira hermosana n. sp.
Figs. 10-12.

Shell small, conical, composed of about seven gradually enlarging volu-
tions. The spire comprises half, or a little more than half, of the entire height,
and the height is slightly greater than the width of the last volution.

Final volution somewhat rhombic in section and strongly carinated around
the periphery which is at the mid height or somewhat below. The lateral
surface, which is slightly concave, descends steeply from the suture. The
lower surface, which is gently convex, descends from the periphery inward,
but in the axial region it rather sharply assumes an upward direction. The
peripheral zone is occupied and truncated by the slitband, which is rather
narrow and depressed between two thin strongly projecting lamellae. Below
the carina, that is, on the lower surface but in the peripheral part, there is
a narrow groove which in width is about equal to the slitband, and which
is separated from the slitband by the lower of the two bounding lamellae;
below this again and of about the same width there is a narrow, rounded
ridge. The volutions embrace to this spiral ridge, so that the carina forms a
somewhat conspicuous projection winding around the shell, but losing its
elevation as it approaches the apex.

The surface is crossed by numerous slender, sharply elevated transverse
lirae distinctly narrower than the striae between them, little difference in
sculpture being observable between the lateral and basal parts. On the upper
surface these lines are at the same time convex (toward the aperture) and
oblique, with a rather strong backward swing. On the lower surface they are
sinuous but on the whole generally transverse in direction. Starting at the
slitband they have for a short distance a forward direction but turn back-
ward as they cross the revolving ridge on the basal surface. Thence, they
make a broad shallow reentrant curve, followed by a broad shallow convex
curve, the change in direction occurring about midway on the lower surface.
As these lines necessarily converge toward the axis, many that begin at the
carina die out or become confluent to form lirae of larger size; the others ap-
parently become somewhat strengthened so that the peripheral half of the
lower surface is more finely striated than the axial half. In the slitband the
transverse lines make distinct lunettes, the markings here being similar to
those elsewhere on the shell but considerably finer. Traces of extremely fine
spiral lines have been observed in the slitband. They are interrupted by the
lunettes or confined to the spaces between them. Some 5 or 6 of the trans-
verse lirae of the upper surface are spanned by 1 mm., the measurement be-
ing made at right angles to their oblique direction. On the lower surface the
liration is somewhat finer near the carina but it becomes as coarse if not
coarser toward the axis through confluence or fasciculation of the lirae.

In typical Euconospira the surface is crossed by spiral as well as trans-

254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

verse lines, producing a cancellated ornamentation. Euconospira Hermosana
has no such spiral lines, and this fact although it is not regarded as debaring
it from Euconospira, at once distinguishes it from a number of species there
referred. Several species of Huconospira, it is true, have only traces of spiral
lines (such as the very robust H. taggart:), or have spiral lines only on the
under surface. Pleurotomaria coniformis, P. conulus, and P. (Bembezia) ele-
gantula, which possibly should be referred under Euconospira, have, like the
present species, only transverse lirae, but they are sharply distinguished
from it in other ways.
McCoy formation of Roth (Pennsylvanian); McCoy, Colorado.

Pleurotomaria rockymontana n. sp.
Figs. 13-16.

Shell of moderate size, elongate, conical, composed of 10 or more gradually
enlarging volutions. Spire about twice the height of the final volution and
distinctly but not strongly turreted.

Final volution irregularly rhombic in section with the basal surface gently
convex and almost horizontal, with the lateral surface strongly oblique, and
with the carinated periphery sharply rounded or subtruncate. The lateral
surface is slightly sinuate, somewhat protuberant in the upper part and
somewhat flaring in the lower. The peripheral angle, which is rounded as
just described, is the locus of 2 revolving ridges or carinae of which the higher
is slightly the more prominent. Adjacent to the lower carina, but on the un-
derside of the volution is a third ridge distinctly inferior in size and promi-
nence. It is separated from the lower carina by a narrow groove, somewhat
narrower and shallower than the groove inclosed between the two peripheral
carinae.

The lateral surface of the final volution is crossed by small spiral and
transverse lines which form a regular and fine cancellation marked with little
nodes where the lines intersect. The spiral lines are slender and spaced at
about their own width or somewhat more. They are subequal but gradually
diminish in size and prominence from above downward. About 8 can be
counted on one specimen; one or two more on others. The transverse lines
are about the same in size and spacing as the spiral ones on some specimens
but on most they are the dominant feature being conspicuously stronger and
more widely spaced. They are in the upper part almost straight and almost
direct but bend backward more or less strongly as they approach the upper
carina so that they have, in that degree, a general backward trend.

The markings of the peripheral zone vary much in detail on different
specimens, probably due to the minute character of the units and to their
imperfect and unequal preservation. Where most clearly distinguishable the
slitband is a narrow flat ribbon deeply depressed between the two peripheral
carinae. It appears to be defined by delicate lirae on the sides of the carinae
and it is marked by very fine, closely arranged lunettes. The occurrence of
the lirae is such that the carinae sometimes appear to be surmounted by two
revolving lirae. This is especially true of the lower carina because it is some-
what smaller and less prominent than the upper, and the lira on its inner
side is more on a parity with it. In one specimen the slitband is not distin-
guishable as such, but instead the groove between the carinae appears to be
occupied by several fine spiral lines. These features are not shown clearly or

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 255

in detail, however. The transverse lirae apparently do not pass the upper
carina, which is not crenulated, and when they reappear in the slitband they
are very much finer and more closely arranged. Nor have they been detected
on the lower carina, but in the groove just below it the transverse lines re-
appear with a sharp expression and with a marked forward slant from above.
Traces of fine spiral lines are also shown here by some specimens, and
probably they are a constant feature. The sculpture of the basal surface
from the lower carina to the axis, is not well shown. It seems to be cancel-
lated like the lateral surface, but more finely. The revolving lirae are more
slender, more closely arranged and consequently more numerous, and the
transverse lines are even finer. They are greatly inferior to the transverse
lines of the lateral surface so that whereas there the transverse lines are the
dominant feature, the spiral lines have here the dominant part. The volu-
tions embrace so as partly to conceal the lowest of the three revolving ridges
that occupy the peripheral zone exposing, however, its crest together with
the groove above it and the two peripheral carinae with their included
groove. These projections break the regular slope of the spire and give the
conical shell its somewhat turreted shape.

This species appears to resemble P. adamsi in a general way. Worthen’s
description, however, is not clear, in fact seems to be contradictory regarding
certain details. In point of sculpture it mentions only spiral lines on the two
carinae which inclose the slitband. One part, at least, of the final volution is
said to be smooth, apparently the basal surface (‘‘smooth below the spiral
band’’); this is not true of any part of P. rockymontana. P. adamsi also has a
wider spiral angle. P. gzffordi is on the whole somewhat more similar but it
has fewer spiral lines on the lateral surface and apparently no transverse
lines at all; there are other differences as well, such as showing a greater
depth of shell below the slitband in the final volution and above the suture
in the higher ones and lacking a third ridge below the two carinae that in-
close the slitband. P. subdecussata and P. rockymontana are also comparable
in a number of details, more in sculpture than in configuration, as P. sub-
decussata has a much lower spire. P. subdecussata resembles the present spe-
cies and differs from the two previously mentioned, in having the lateral sur-
face finely cancellated by numerous revolving and transverse lines, but like
the foregoing it appears to lack the additional carina below the two on the
periphery.

McCoy formation of Roth (Pennsylvanian); McCoy, Colorado (station
6714).

Orestes? reticulatus n. sp.
Figs. 17-19.

Shell rather small, subconical, composed of about seven volutions. Width
and height nearly equal.

Final volution rhombic in section with the peripheral line well-nigh basal.
The lateral surface juts out at the suture to form a narrow shelf-like projec-
tion which, though slightly inclined is almost horizontal. From this tablet,
which it meets in a pronounced angle, the main part of the lateral surface,
sloping steeply, drops down to the periphery without material interruption.

256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

The peripheral angle, which is about 60 degrees, is somewhat truncated or
sharply rounded. The lower surface is almost planate and almost horizontal.
It descends appreciably from the peripheral angle and in the axial region
makes a sub-angular turn, bending upward with a slight obliquity. The axis
is solid and the lip slightly reflexed to form a false umbilicus. The rather
broad slit band occurs just above the periphery and is sharply defined by
two rather thick prominent lirae. Just below the lower of these lirae but still
above the peripheral line the surface retreats into a rather narrow deep
rounded groove, and this is followed by the periphery itself, consisting of a
narrow rounded ridge which in width is about equal to the groove above and
in prominence scarcely exceeds the guarding lirae of the slitband. Thus the
peripheral region is marked by three slender ridges or carinae separated by
two grooves. The lower carina is decidedly thicker than the two above that
inclose the slitband, and the slitband or upper groove is much broader
than the lower. The volutions embrace up to and including the lowest ridge,
so that the groove above and the slitband are exposed. This gives the shell
as a whole an obscurely turreted appearance. As the whorls are followed
backward up the spire, they lose their angulated shape and become more
regularly rounded.

The sculpture in general terms consists of a rather coarse reticulation made
by sharply raised revolving lirae crossed by transverse lirae of about the
same size and spacing. Small but rather conspicuous nodes emphasize the
points where the lirae intersect. Reckoning the sharp edge of the shelf-like
projection below the suture as a lira, from 6 to 8 revolving lirae occupy the
lateral surface and an additional lira not uncommonly occurs upon the sub-
sutural tablature. The lirae are as a rule rather regular in size and spacing,
but they may vary greatly, and in both items they show a general diminu-
tion downward toward the slitband. The two slender lirae that inclose the
slitband are not distinguished from the lirae above except that they are a
little more prominent and are not affected by the transverse lirae. They are
smooth or in places finely notched or crenulated. Two rather small spiral
lines close together form the peripheral curve or carina (wherefore its
rounded instead of angulated shape) and from 10 to 13 others are developed
on the lower surface. This part of the shell is somewhat more finely marked
than the lateral surface, the lirae being more slender and the intervals nar-
rower, though on both surfaces the intervals are decidedly wider than the
lirae. The slitband generally appears to be without spiral lines and to be
marked only by the usual lunettes, but in one specimen the slitband is
divided by a single delicate raised line, and in several it shows traces of
numerous exceedingly minute lines which seem to be interrupted by the
much stronger lunettes and confined to the intervals between them.

The transverse lirae on the lateral surface are about like the spiral lirae,
rather strong and coarse, and between the two, the lateral surface is divided
into rather large rhombic areas. The transverse lirae come to an end at the
raised line that forms the upper boundary of the slitband. They are not con-
tinuous with the lunettes in the slitband which are in fact much more
numerous and more closely arranged. Nor do they account for the crenula-
tions on the lira that bounds the slitband above (when these can be seen at
all) for the crenulations are even finer than the lunettes. On the lower surface
the transverse lirae are generally finer, more subdued and more closely ar-
ranged than they are on the lateral surface. They show considerable irregu-
larity on the same specimen and great variation between different speci-

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 257

mens. Compared with the revolving lirae which they intersect, they are less
conspicuous; they are also more closely arranged so that the parallelograms
which they help to inclose are much longer than they are wide. Here on the
lower surface they are associated with growth lines to which they are similar
in kind but superior in strength.

In direction, the transverse lirae spread straight out from the suture, but
take on a slight backward trend at the angular margin of the tablature that
surrounds it, and at the same time they become arched (convex side toward
the aperture), so that upon reaching the upper boundary of the slit band
their backward direction is very pronounced. The transverse markings on
the slit band itself make the usual concave arch. On the lower surface the
transverse lines have a gentle backward trend from the periphery and are
gently sinuous in shape. Close under the slit band they have a forward direc-
tion, but, making a turn on the periphery they first describe a concave curve
and then when half-way across, a convex curve. These curves, which are ex-
pressed with reference to the outer lip, are very broad and shallow.

In some respects Orestes? reticulatus resembles the species which Keyes
thought might be the one which Meek and Worthen thought might be
Shumard’s Pleurotomaria brazoensis. Shumard’s species, as I interpret it on
specimens from Texas, is a characteristic member of the genus Orestes, and
is very different from Meek and Worthen’s shell. The latter must be called
Pleurotomaria intertexta, a reversional name which those authors suggested
in case it proved to be distinct from P. brazoensis. P. brazoensis of Keyes,
on the other hand, seems to be a quite different species from the P. brazoensis
of Meek and Worthen (or Pleurotomaria intertexta) and even more different
from typical P. brazoensis. Though not identical with Orestes? reticulatus,
it is much like it in general appearance. Its shape, however, is more turreted
and less conical; its slit band is broader, is divided by a median line, and is
peripheral in position instead of being above the periphery with a groove be-
low it. The carinae on either side of the slit band are not simple raised lines
or ridges—they are compound, the upper being formed by two raised lines
and the lower by two or three. Furthermore, the transverse lines are of two
orders and so disposed that from three to six of microscopic size intervene
between two of the larger ones. Something like this can be observed on the
lower surface of O: reticulatus though the intermediate lines are subdued and
incremental in character, but on the lateral surface, growth lines, if present
at all, are only just discernible. Thus, the obvious resemblance between O.?
reticulatus and the Pleurotomaria brazoensis of Keyes is of a general charac-
ter, and critical comparison discloses many differences in detail.

McCoy formation of Roth (Pennsylvanian); McCoy, Colorado (station
6714).

Orestes? quadrilineatus n. sp.
Figs. 20-22.

In its general character and also in many details this species is closely
allied to Orestes? reticulatus. It is, however, more depressed and in shape more

258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIKNCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

or less hemispherical whereas the other is more or less conical. This differ-
ence is partly due to the shape of the constituent volutions which are more
rounded, and partly to their adjustment to one another. The more rounded
shape of the volutions manifests itself in several details. The lateral surface
is more arched and at the same time less oblique; the lower surface likewise
is more arched, dropping farther below the peripheral zone. The peripheral
zone is much less angular, for whereas in O.? reticulatus the part below the
slitband projects beyond the part above, so as to form a sharply rounded
peripheral angle, in this species the two parts project about equally, so that
the slitband appears to occur rather upon a broadly rounded peripheral
zone than above a narrowly rounded one.

The two species differ perhaps more in configuration than they do in
sculpture, but the sculpture too, though the same in general character, is
different in certain details. The spiral ornamentation in O.? quadrilineatus
consists of fewer and sometimes thicker lines more widely spaced and the
transverse ornamentation also, though varying greatly in scale, is on the
whole somewhat coarser. The lateral surface is commonly marked by 4
strong, sub-angular, revolving costae separated by rounded grooves of much
larger size. This enumeration does not include the raised line that bounds
the slitband on its upper side, but it does include the ridge that marks the
outer limit of the tablature below the suture. These four revolving costae
can not be said to have any constant or characteristic arrangement for they
vary in spacing from specimen to specimen, but rather commonly the upper
one stands some distance from the suture and the intervening surface may,
by reason of the rounded shape of the volution, incline slightly downward
toward the suture instead of declining slightly away from it. On the other
hand the side of the surface may arch inward regularly to the suture with-
out forming any distinct tablature. The lowest of the 4 costae, as a rule, oc-
curs rather close to the slitband, but is separated by a rather broad interval
from the one above. The one above (or the third from the suture) may be
somewhat smaller than the rest or it may be entirely undeveloped. In that
event there would be 3 instead of 4 of these revolving costae. All four, how-
ever, may be essentially equal in size and spacing. The transverse lirae in-
stead of tracing a regular backward curve from the suture as in O.? reticu-
latus, reach the same end by an angular change of direction where they
cross the spiral ridges, the points of intersection being marked by nodes
which though actually small are sometimes prominent and striking. Thus,
the shelf-like jutting of the shell below the suture is apt to be conspicuously
and handsomely marked by strong lines which spread out from the suture,
form pronounced nodes on the revolving ridge that forms its outer boundary,
and pass backward by successive angles to the slitband. This shelf-like pro-
jection, crossed by transverse lines and bordered by a row of nodes, is in
many specimens a conspicuous feature.

O. quadrilineatus is closely related to O. reticulatus; the fact of relationship
is clear and the degree is not. Taken together a rather large number of speci-
mens have been examined but many of these specimens have been crushed,
some completely flattened, so that their original shape at best can only be
surmised; to that extent it is impossible to determine how far the differences
in configuration and the differences in sculpture above described are parallel
developments, especially as the sculpture also is defaced in some specimens.

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 259

Judged by such specimens as retain both features more or less faithfully the
two species appear to intergrade. Some specimens represent a more or less
intermediate condition between the low hemispherical shape distinctive of
O. quadrilineatus and the high conical shape distinctive of O. reticulatus.
Again some specimens that in configuration appear to belong with the one
species have a sculpture tending to ally them with the other. In fact the
sculpture is not at all constant, varying if only in minutiae from specimen to
specimen. Yet we have the counter-vailing fact that the low hemispherical
shells do generally differ in sculpture as well as in shape from the high conical
ones and that the extremes are conspicuously unlike.

McCoy formation of Roth (Pennsylvanian); McCoy, Colorado (station
6714).

Pleurotomaria aspera 0. sp.
Figs. 23-25.

Shell small, conical, composed of 6 or 7 regularly enlarging volutions.
Spiral angle about 60°. Spire with rather flat sides interrupted by the
suture which is indented though not deeply.

Final volution trapezoidal in section with the peripheral line almost basal.
The lateral surface is nearly planate, descending steeply from the suture and
passing below into the peripheral angle which is narrowly rounded. The basal
surface, though nearly flat and nearly horizontal descends slightly from the
periphery and bends upward rather abruptly in the axial region. The slit-
band is situated on the peripheral angle and the volutions embrace to or al-
most to its lower boundary. The axis is solid, but the lip appears to be
slightly reflexed forming a small indentation.

The sculpture, as is usual in these shells, consists of spiral and transverse
lirae but as the lirae are uncommonly strong and coarse for so small a species
they give the surface a conspicuously rough appearance. The side of the last
volution is marked by 5 or 6 primary lirae which are more or less equal in
size and separated by somewhat wider interspaces. The interspaces, like
the lirae, vary somewhat in width and one or more of them may be occupied
by a secondary lira; thus the sculpture presents great variety in detail. The
transverse lirae are not quite so strong as the revolving lirae and they are
not quite so far apart. The intersections of these decussating lines are marked
by exceptionally large nodes. The nodes are somewhat elongated in line
with the transverse lirae which are thin and depressed in the intervals be-
tween them. Thus the nodes have a strict linear arrangement in a transverse
as well as in a spiral direction. This double alignment is not well shown in
the illustrations in which the transverse arrangement is hardly distinguish-
able while the spiral arrangement is conspicuous. The transverse lirae at
the outset are about perpendicular to the suture but in a short distance they
bend rather abruptly backward with a gently convex course. The slitband is
broad. It is divided by a median lira which is generally stout and strongly
nodose, and it is defined above and below by raised lines which are slender
and obscurely nodose. If the median lira is large and prominent, as it is in
many specimens, it tends to give the periphery an angulated shape. On the
other hand, because the median lira is small or for some other reason, the
periphery may be strongly rounded instead of angular. As the lirae that
bound the slitband resemble the secondary lirae of the lateral surface and

260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

the median lira resembles the primary lirae the slitband is not as well differ-
entiated as it is in many species, being recognizable chiefly by the deflection
of the transverse lirae into lunettes, which, as they produce stout nodes upon
the median lirae, to that extent disguise instead of distinguish it. The
lunettes are strong and rather widely spaced—not quite so widely spaced as
the transverse lirae on the lateral surface. On a few specimens the lunettes
for some distance near the aperture are feebly developed—scarcely more
than growth lines—and in crossing the median lira they produce scarcely
more than crenulations. Farther back on the same volution, however, they
are strong and nodose.

The markings of the lower surface do not differ materially from those of
the lateral surface. The revolving lirae are generally a little more slender
and more widely spaced and they are also more regular in size and in arrange-
ment. They are somewhat more numerous (being 8 or 9 in number) but at
the same time they cover a wider surface. In comparison with the lateral
surface the transverse lirae are decidedly more subdued and more closely
arranged, and they are more distinctly subordinate to the associated spiral
lirae. The enlargements formed at the intersections are but small, sometimes
scarcely appreciable except in the axial region where some of the spiral
lirae (rarely more than 2 or 3) are strongly and conspicuously nodose. In
direction the transverse lirae have a somewhat backward direction and a
slightly sinuous course making close to the slitband a short and gentle con-
vex curve, then a broad and gentle concave curve, and near the axis a second
convex curve.

In the earliest volutions on which the sculpture has been observed, it
appears to consist entirely of very fine spiral lirae—this refers, of course, to
the region above the slitband which is the only part not concealed. Some-
what later transverse lirae become visible though at first they are much sub-
ordinate to the spiral ones; still later by a relative increase in strength they
become nearly but not quite equal to them.

There are few species in our Carboniferous literature with which P. aspera
can profitably be compared, those whose sculpture is somewhat similar being
mostly much more depressed-conical in shape. P. granulistriata, however, is
very similar in both shape and sculpture, so much so that selected specimens,
though no two have been observed that were even essentially the same in
character, might yet be classed as of the same species. The sculpture of P.
granulistriata, however, is on the whole coarser than that of P. aspera, the
nodes at the intersections of the decussating lirae are more rounded and
prominent and the transverse lirae are less pronounced. |

McCoy formation of Roth (Pennsylvanian); McCoy, Colorado (station
6714).

Pleurotomaria woolseyana, n. sp.
Figs. 26, 27.

Shell of medium size, subconical or subovate, somewhat turreted. Volu-
tions about five in number. Spire moderately high with depressed sutures.
Aperture subelliptical or slightly rhombic. Axis solid.

The external surface of the final volution is sharply differentiated into
three zones—lateral, peripheral, and basal. The narrow peripheral zone

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 261

which contains the slitband occurs well below the mid-height. It is approx-
imately parallel to the axis and is either gently concave, when it is defined
by slender raised lines, or flattened, when it is defined by distinct angles.
The broad lateral surface is moderately convex and declines more or less
strongly from the suture. The broad lower surface is almost planate. It has
a gentle downward obliquity from the periphery but is strongly upturned
in the axial region and also, in some specimens more than in others, near the
periphery.

The sculpture comprises spiral and transverse lirae. The spiral lirae occur
on both the lateral and the basal surface; the transverse lirae only on the
lateral surface. On the lateral surface the spiral lirae are rather strong and
closely arranged; they are developed to the number of 10 or 12 and are com-
monly subequal, though they may irregularly alternate in size. The trans-
verse lirae are apt to be somewhat weaker than the revolving lirae and some-
what finer and more closely arranged. The spiral series shows a gradual
increase in scale from the suture to the periphery; the transverse series like-
wise shows a gradual increase in scale from above downward but also a
diminution in strength. The points of intersection of these two series are
reinforced as small but pronounced nodes which are distinctly aligned in
spiral and transverse rows. Because of the weakening of the transverse lirae
in their downward course, the transverse alignment is conspicuous over the
upper part of the volution while the spiral alignment alone is distinct in the
lowest rows—2 or 3 in number. Sometimes the lirae themselves are incon-
spicuous but the nodes which they form remain undiminished in strength
and in the regularity of their alignment.

The lower surface is marked by revolving lirae, about 12 in number. These
lirae contrast sharply with those of the lateral surface in being smooth in-
stead of nodose; as a rule they are also somewhat stronger and more widely
spaced. They become more slender and more closely arranged toward the
axis. Very fine regular incremental lines are sometimes present and cor-
respondingly fine crenulations are then formed on the revolving lirae; how-
ever, even these are rarely to be observed.

The markings of the peripheral zone are delicate and commonly obscure,
and they appear to vary from specimen to specimen. The arrangement most
often found consists of 3 or 4 equal, closely spaced, revolving lirae without
appreciable cross-markings. On some specimens a line having the median
position is larger than the rest, and on some only a single line, corresponding
to this one, can be made out. The median lira, whether alone or accompanied
by others, may be periodically enlarged into minute, beadlike nodes; for
any other manifestation of transverse lines, however, one looks almost in
vain. There is, however, convincing evidence, both from analogy and oc-
casional observations, that the peripheral zone with its specialized sculpture
is the site of the slitband.

The volutions embrace up to the lower border of the slitband, and as the
volutions are more or less convex while the band is vertical in direction be-
sides being more or less concave, the suture is correspondingly indented and
the spire correspondingly turreted.

In the figured specimen the nodes above the slitband appear to be ar-
ranged in spiral lines only, especially the two lowest. Over the upper part of
the volution the dual alignment is conspicuous. In fact, certain lights bring
out a reversed alignment across the surface. The normal transverse align-
ment (from the suture downward and to the right) is not adequately shown

262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

by the figure which also is on too small a scale to show the minute nodes on
the median lira of the slitband.

P. woolseyana is related, though somewhat distantly, to P. granulistriata.
It is much larger, the largest of my specimens being 11 millimeters in height
and 9.5 millimeters in diameter. Meek and Worthen’s species is only about
half as large and it also seems to be more constant in its slender conical
form. The surface markings of both are the same in general plan, but those of
P. woolseyana are finer, especially in relation to the size of the shell, and more
subdued; 10 to 12 revolving lirae occur on the upper surface as against 3 or 4
in P. granulisiriata, the lirae on the under side being also more numerous.
The lirae of the lower surface are in this species a little larger and more
widely spaced than those on the upper, which is just the reverse of the condi-
tion described by Meek and Worthen. Furthermore, the slitband in P.
granulistriata is marked by sharply defined lunettes and is occupied in large
part by a single revolving lira that is strongly and somewhat coarsely nodose.

P. woolseyana is much more closely related to P. millegranosa besides oc-
curring in the same fauna. The most pronounced difference perhaps is that
the slitband in P. mllegranosa regularly carries a single revolving line that
is strongly nodose, whereas the slitband in P. woolseyana has from 1 to 4
revolving lines that are not nodose or are but partly so; this difference, how-
ever, is but a general tendency, not invariably pronounced. Again, in P.
millegranosa the sculpture of the lateral surface is coarser, the nodes are
larger, and their arrangement in spiral lines, more conspicuous—or at least
an arrangement in transverse lines is less so.

Brentwood limestone member of the Bloyd shale (early Pennsylvanian) ;
bank of stream about 14 miles south of Woolsey, Arkansas. Winslow quad-
rangle (station 2849).

Pleurotomaria millegranosa n. sp.
Figs. 28, 29.

Shell small, subconical, composed of 5 or 6 volutions. Height and width
about equal. Suture depressed.

Final volution somewhat rhomboidal in section with the periphery well
below the middle. The lateral surface is strongly oblique and gently convex,
slightly prominent close to the suture; the lower surface is almost planate
and almost horizontal but is strongly upturned to the axis. The lateral and
lower surfaces meet in a rounded peripheral angle about two-thirds of the
entire height of the volution below the suture. The peripheral angle is in-
dented by the slitband which is defined by two slender sharp revolving lirae
of equal size and prominence. The volutions embrace about to the lower
boundary of the slitband which, rising sharply above the suture, gives the
spire a slightly turreted shape.

The sculpture varies considerably, but that of the lateral surface in gen-
eral terms consists of 7 to 9 revolving lirae surmounted by rounded nodes
regularly spaced at about their own diameter. The lirae are on the whole
equal in size and regular in arrangement, but they are commonly a little

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 263

finer and more closely arranged above, near the suture, and a little coarser
and more widely spaced below, near the slitband. For a short distance below
the suture the nodes have a transverse as well as a spiral arrangement.

The lower surface is marked by from 7 to 13 slender, sharply elevated re-
volving lirae separated by flattened interspaces. In contrast to those of the
lateral surface, these lirae are smooth, devoid of nodes or even, as a rule, of
crenulations. Toward the axis, thev do not so much diminish in size as in
spacing, the interspaces near the periphery being somewhat wider than the
lirae, those near the axis somewhat narrower.

The slitband, as already described, is a narrow sulcus indenting the pe-
ripheral angle and defined by two slender lirae. These lirae are smooth and
knife-edged. The upper one contrasts strongly with the nodose lirae just
above; the lower one, on the contrary, rarely differs appreciably from the
lirae of the lower surface except that it is so situated and directed as to make
the lower surface appear to terminate there in a sharp angle. The slitband is
regularly divided by a slender median lira formed of small, closely arranged
nodes. Though resemling the lirae of the upper surface in its moniliform
shape, this lira is more slender and more finely nodose.

The axis is solid. There is no inner lip; instead, the surface of the final
whorl within the aperture is smooth and depressed as if the shell had been
removed by absorption.

The slit was probably shallow though it has not actually been observed.
This inference is suggested by the fact that structure is not shown by speci-
mens which appear to be but little broken at the aperture. Either the slit
must have been short or the breakage greater than it appears to be.

This species is by no means rare and the numerous specimens examined
show considerable variation. Shells have been referred here that differ
notably both in the width of the spiral angle and in the shape of the con-
stituent whorls. In some, the lateral and lower surfaces of the whorls are
less arched than in others; the lateral surface may flare in the lower part
with a prominent edge to the slitband below it; and rather commonly the
lira that bounds the slitband above is a little stronger and more prominent
than the one below it.

The relation between the lirae and the interspaces on the lateral surface
is variable; the lirae may be relatively thick and the interspaces about equal
to them or a trifle smaller; or the lira may be relatively slender and the
interspaces correspondingly broad. Small accessory lirae may occur here and
there in the interspaces, bringing the total number up to 12 or more in some
instances. The size of the nodes and the size of the lirae vary pari passu. The
accessory lirae have smaller nodes than the regular lirae and if extremely
slender they may have no nodes at all. The slitband is sometimes distin-
guished not only in the ways mentioned, but also by being isolated, the
interval between it and the lowest lira above being as wide as the slitband
itself and much wider than the interval between any of the nodose lirae. On
the other hand, this interval may be occupied by a slender accessory lira.
The relation between the lirae and interspaces varies also on the lower sur-
face, some specimens having slender lirae with relatively wide interspaces,
others relatively thick lirae with narrow interspaces.

The nodose character of the revolving lirae is virtually due to slender
transverse ridges developed at short and regular intervals which, on crossing
the revolving lirae, greatly strengthen them. These transverse elements are
rarely to be distinguished as ridges except below the suture; elsewhere they

264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

Figs. 1-29.—For explanation see opposite page.

JUNE 15, 19384 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 265

are almost without visible evidence save that which is furnished by the
nodes. Consequently, the spiral arrangement of the nodes is conspicuous, the
transverse arrangement readily overlooked. Nevertheless such an arrange-
ment must be present if the nodes are formed in the manner indicated, and
in fact, upon close observation, transverse rows can be distinguished, curved
and backward sloping. Except near the suture and for occasional prolonga-
tions, very subdued, the transverse ridges do not appear elsewhere on the
older volutions. They are suggested, it is true, by the nodes on the median
lira of the slitband, but the slitband rarely shows any evidence, even ob-
securely, of the sharply defined lunettes characteristic of that part, whereas
the lower surface commonly appears to lack even growth lines.

With well preserved specimens and with a favorable light, the nodes on
the lateral surface are seen to have the form of arched scales rising obliquely
toward the aperture and in general appearance they may be likened to a
series of minute funnels issuing one from another. They appear to be pro-
duced by transverse lameliae that are extended and thickened where they
cross the revolving lirae. On the same specimen, but with a change of light
these projections look like well defined rounded nodes, and that is how they
usually appear.

As the shell progressed toward maturity the volutions underwent a change
both in shape and in sculpture. The immature whorls were essentially cir-
cular in section, but the later ones became flattened on the outer side ob-
liquely and on the under side horizontally until they became more or less
rhombic in section. The immature sculpture was characterized by a greater
balance between the transverse and spiral markings. At a stage preceding
that characterized by a mature type of sculpture the transverse lirae and
the spiral lirae appear to have been of about equal strength. Not un-

Description of figures
The figures on this plate are of natural size unless otherwise stated.

Figs. 1-7. Cryptacanthia? robusta n.sp. Different views of 4 cotypes. Figs. 1-2.
Dorsal and side views of a large specimen somewhat worn down the middle of the ped-
icle valve. Fig. 3. Dorsal view of a small specimen. Fig. 4. Ventral view of another
specimen. Figs. 5-7. Anterior, dorsal, and ventral view of a fairly complete specimen.
Delaware Mountain formation, Culberson County, Texas (station 6452).

Figs. 8-9. Pleurotomaria worthenioides n.sp. Two views of the holotype, X38.
Brentwood limestone, Winslow quadrangle, Arkansas (station 3733).

Figs. 10-12. Huconospira hermosana n.sp. Three views of the holotype, figure 10
being X2. McCoy formation of Roth, McCoy, Colorado (station 6714).

Figs. 13-16. Pleurotomaria rockymontana n.sp. Views of 4 cotypes. Figures 14-16
are X3. McCoy formation of Roth, McCoy, Colorado (station 6714).

Figs. 17-19. Orestas? reticulatus n.sp. View of 2 of 4 cotypes. 3. The specimen
represented by figure 19 is not only crushed, but as drawn is somewhat tilted, giving
a false impression of the configuration in several respects. The under side is really al-
most flat and almost horizontal, as in figure 17. McCoy formation of Roth, McCoy,
Colorado (station 6714).

Figs. 20-22. Orestes? quadrilineatus n.sp. Views of 3 of 4 cotypes. Fig. 20 is X2,
the others X3. McCoy formation of Roth, McCoy, Colorado (station 6714).

Figs. 23-25. Pleurotomaria aspera n.sp. Views of 2 of 4 cotypes. X4. Figures 24
and 25 represent the same specimen. McCoy formation of Roth, McCoy, Colorado
(station 6714).

Figs. 26, 27. Pleurotomaria woolseyana, n.sp. Views of 1 of 7 cotypes, X5. The
median lira of the slitband is marked by minute nodes, too small to be represented on
the drawing. Brentwood limestone, Winslow quadrangle, Arkansas (station 2849).

Figs. 28, 29. Pleurotomaria millegranosa n.sp. Views of 2 of 7 cotypes, X65.
Brentwood limestone, Winslow quadrangle, Arkansas (figure 28, station 3733; figure 29,
station 3662).

266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

commonly the upper half of the volution will appear to be marked by trans-
verse lirae rendered irregular or nodose by the spiral lirae while the lower
half appears to be marked by spiral lirae rendered regularly nodose by the
transverse lirae. At one stage, probably just prior to the stage just described,
the surface is marked by smooth spiral lirae of considerable strength and at
a stage still earlier by minute irregular spiral striations. The earliest stages
were presumably smooth or marked only by incremental lines.

These specimens show a feature which they share with many other gas-
tropods, but which cannot be accounted for in any acceptable way. I refer
to small round openings or perforations which are obviously superficial as
regards penetration, fairly uniform in size, and fairly regular in distribution.
That is, although they are found only on certain specimens and on certain
parts of others, they almost invariably occur on the tops of the nodes or on
the crests of the lirae. They can hardly be attributed to a boring organism or
on the other hand to abrasion. It is conceivable that they may be due to
some peculiarity of structure or to some peculiarity of chemical composition
(perhaps related to the pigments that produced color markings) and that
variation in this feature was played upon by varying forces in process of
fossilization. As this phenomenon is so common it is mentioned here only
because it sometimes lends a fictitious appearance to those lirae of the lower
surface which are described as smooth and even, but are in this way made
to appear ragged or nodose.

P. millegranosa was found in considerable abundance at station 3662 and
station 3733, and a single characteristic specimen was found at station
-1996d. Elsewhere the species appears to be rare and the other specimens re-
ferred here are few, immature, and more or less ill-preserved. Their identi-
fication is correspondingly qualified.

Pleurotomaria millegranosa resembles Meek and Worthen’s P. granulis-
triata from which, however, it differs considerably in several particulars. The
whorls in P. granulistriata appear to be more regularly rounded and the
lateral surface is traversed by only 3 or 4 revolving lines, whereas P. mille-
granosa has twice that number. The transverse lines which in both species
help to produce the granules on the revolving lirae are in P. granulistriata
more pronounced; in the present species the granules (except in young speci-
mens) rarely show much transverse connection and are predominantly
spiral in their arrangement. Furthermore in P. millegranosa the lower sur-
face has somewhat more numerous revolving lirae and it is also without cross
striae. These differences and others show clearly that P. millegranosa is a
distinct species. It is also distinct from the one which I have called Pleuro-
tomaria woolseyana, though an undoubted resemblance exists between them.
The slitband in P. millegranosa is narrower and more sharply defined and
it is traversed by a single lira which bears regular nodes instead of several
smaller lirae which commonly are without them and the lateral surface is
even less conspicuously marked by transverse lirae.

Brentwood limestone member of the Bloyd shale (early Pennsylvanian) ;
S.W.2 sec. 27, T.138N., R.82W. (station 3733); up draw from Cove Creek,
3 miles north of Cold Spring, Arkansas (station 3662). Winslow quadrangle.

JUNE 15, 1934 NELSON AND GOLDMAN: A NEW MOUSE 267

ZOOLOGY.—A new pocket mouse from Sonora.! E. W. NELSON,
U.S. National Museum and E. A. Gotpman, Biological Survey.

Among the results of the Mexican expedition of Frederic Winthrop
in cooperation with the Biological Survey in 1932, was the collection
of a specimen of Perognathus flavus in Sonora. The known range of
the species is thus materially extended into the low desert region near
the shore of the Gulf of California. The single specimen collected
appears to represent a new and easily recognizable geographic race
here described.

Perognathus flavus sonoriensis, subsp. nov.
Sonora Pocket Mouse

Type.—From Costa Rica Ranch, lower Sonera River, Sonora, Mexico.
No. 250885, 2 adult, skin and skull, U. S. National Museum (Biological
Survey collection), collected by Vernon Bailey and Frederic Winthrop,
December 13, 1932. Original number 11282.

Distribution.—Low desert plains of middle western Sonora.

General characters.—Closely allied to Perognathus flavus flavus, but upper
parts less heavily overlaid with black, owing to shortening of dark tips of
hairs; ears less blackish; black facial markings obsolescent; hind foot ap-
parently shorter; cranial details distinctive.

Color.—Type: Upper parts in general near pinkish buff (Ridgway, 1912),
finely mixed or overlaid with black, the dark hairs most numerous on top of
head and over back; lateral line rich pinkish buff, broad and distinct from
cheeks to thighs, with a narrow downward extension reaching to near fore-
arm; under parts and limbs white; muzzle white; dark, V-shaped, facial
marking narrow and indistinct; ears lined internally with mixed grayish and
brownish hairs; tail dull whitish, nearly unicolor.

Skull——Very similar to that of typical flavus, but rostrum and nasals
shorter; zygomata more widely spreading anteriorly ;molariform teethsmaller.

Measurements.—Type: Hind foot, 15 mm. (no other external measure-
ments available). Skull (type): Length (median line), 19.3; greatest breadth
(across audital bullae at meatus), 11.7; zygomatic breadth (posteriorly),
10.3; interorbital breadth, 4.2; length of nasals, 6.5; width of nasals (in
front of incisors), 2; interparietal, 33.2; maxillary toothrow, 2.8.

Remarks.—P. f. sonoriensis requires close comparison only with typical
flavus of western Texas. Vernon Bailey reported that the specimen made the
type “‘was found dead, drowned after the big rain of December 14, near our
camp on the big flat at the sink of the Sonora River.” In regard to the gen-
eral occurrence of the animal he says: ‘‘On the big sandy mesquite plains
near Llano they were especially numerous and dozens of their characteristic
little round burrows and little hills of earth were all around our camp...
but the mice refused our bait. One left his tail in a trap which showed the
species if not the subspecies. Other places where signs were seen were near
Hermosillo and Magdalena.”’

1 Received March 14, 1934.

268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

ENTOMOLOGY .—The genus Oliarus and its allies in North America
(Homoptera Fulgoridae).1 EK. D. Bau, University of Arizona.

The writer started to prepare a food plant list of the western wax-
hoppers of the Fulgorid family Cizidae but soon found that, as usual,
a considerable number of the species had apparently not been named.
As opportunity afforded he has been taking up one genus at a time
for preliminary revision in order to assign the new forms to their
proper positions. One form was found that did not fit into any existing
genus and the following genus is proposed for its reception.

Oliaronus Ball n. gen.

Intermediate in size and form between Mnemosyne and Oliarus. Resem-
bling a large dark Oliarus with an extremely broad head and long, narrow,
almost parallel margined elytra. Vertex very broad, but little longer than
broad, almost parallel margined, the lateral carinae angled just in front of
the middle and uniting before the apex, forming two large fovae. Front
tumid, rounding over to vertex with only a trace of a carina, broad at the
base and narrowly clasping the extremely long, oval, tumid clypeus. The
ocellus visible and a median carina on front and clypeus indicated. Prono-
tum as short or shorter than in Oliarus, deeply angularly emarginate
posteriorly and projecting into the angularly emarginate head. Mesonotum
faintly 5 carinate. Elytra long and narrow with a smoky subhyaline mem-
brane and strong dark nervures that are heavily setigerous throughout. Ve-
nation striking and distinctive. The subcosta (+R) approaching the costa
which is thickened back to the stigma and the whole thickened area thickly
beset with heavy setigerous punctures. The area between the subcosta and
medius with scattering punctures in the central part. The stigma located
anterior to the end of the clavus, the subcosta and radius both turning in,
the subcosta capturing the radius about half way back from the stigma and
thus forming a very broad area along the costa, which is divided into from
8 to 10 long narrow transverse cells. The female abdomen with a large wax
plate.

Type of the genus Oliaronus tontonus Nn. sp.

Oliaronus tontonus Ball n. sp.

Superficially resembling Oliarus pima Kirk, slightly longer and narrower,
much darker and more heavily setigerous; with a series of transverse vein-
lets back of the stigma. Length 9 10mm, o& 8mm, width 9° 3.5mm.

Structure of the genus, the vertex almost square, rounding over in front,
face much narrower than in O. pima and more tumid. Pronotum very short,
not more than half the length of that in pima, the carina closely margining
the eyes. Elytra long, narrow, and appressed, the apical third slightly ex-
panded, the costal margin with a slight angle near the base, the costal area
back of this very narrow, darkened and heavily pustulate. The stigma very
short and placed far forward, only a little farther from the base than the
apex. Behind this in the expanded area are 8-10 long narrow transverse
cells becoming more oblique as they approach the apex.

1 Received February 28, 1934.

JUNE 15, 1934 BALL: THE GENUS OLIARUS 269

Color, dark smoky brown, the face, margins of vertex and often the meso-
notal tablet testaceous; elytra smoky, the nervures black.

Holotype @, allotype o, and 10 paratypes Eloy, Ariz., Aug. 5, 1932,
one Cline, Ariz. Aug. 2, 1929, all taken from mesquite by the writer; one
paratype, Florence July 25, 1932 (Parker). The transverse cells in the ex-
panded margins of the elytra will at once distinguish the species.

Genus OLIARUS Stal

The genus Olzarus was a difficult one for all early American workers be-
cause the amount of material available was very limited and fragmentary,
many species being represented by a single individual or a single sex and good
series from a single food plant unknown. Five species were named by the
early workers. The writer described three western species in 1902. Fowler in
the Biologia (1904) described nine new species without recognizing any of
those previously described. His material was very limited, half of the species
being described from a single sex. Van Duzee reviewed the United States
forms in 1908 with the first key and added several species in 1912, and others
later. Metcalf (1923) keyed out the species of the eastern United States and
added four more.

The writer has been collecting material and attempting to determine food
plants during the thirty years since his first paper, and now has good series
of twenty-three and representatives of three others of the twenty-eight spe-
cies here recognized as occurring north of the Mexican border. A study of
long series of a number of species has brought out the fact that in this genus
the females may be transversely banded, striped, or spotted but the corre-
sponding males are nearly always plain or nearly so. This has not been pre-
viously recognized and has led to much confusion and synonomy.

A careful study of Fowler’s descriptions and figures suggests the following
disposition of his species; O. excelsus belongs to the vicarius-placitus group
but cannot be placed accurately until a male is found. It appears to resemble
placitus Van D. and examples of that species are at hand from Brownsville,
Tex. O. concinnulus appears to be a distinct species occurring in the U. 8.
O. propior seems to be a distinct species of the broad headed group; the figure
shows an extremely broad face. O. lacteipennis, poorly described without sex
is apparently complectus Ball (1902). O. humeralis, equally poorly described
from a female, is probably the same. O. breviceps described from a female is
aridus Ball (1902) which occurs commonly around the Gulf. O. chirzquensis
and insignior belong to the genus Myndus and are apparently distinct species
in that group. O. nigro-alutaceus is a distinct species occurring north into
Arizona.

Metcalf (1923) did not recognize the difference in color between sexes
which is so striking in this group, nor did he consider the Fowler species and
as a result redescribed concinnulus Fowl. as texanus from Brownsville. The
writer took a good series there in Jan., 1932. Fowler’s drawing of the genitalia
is much better than Metcalf’s figure. Metcalf apparently misidentified dzffi-

270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

cilis Van D. which was described from two females, as he figures the male
genitalia as of the “hammer” type. The writer collected in central and south-
ern Florida and at Brownsville, Tex. a small pale species the female of which
exactly fits Van Duzee’s description of difficilis and the male of Metcalf’s
description of vzttatus (holotype male) from Brownsville. The allotype 92 of
vittatus described with the broad vitta was the female of teranus (which
=concinnulus Fowl.), while the true female of vittatus (which = difficilis Van
D.) has the remnants of a transverse band as described by Van Duzee.

PRELIMINARY KEY TO THE SPECIES OF OLIARUS

A Female with more or less definitely transversely banded elytra (often
three dashes on costal area). Verticies rather long, narrow, deeply
sunken between high lateral carinae that are alternately light and dark.
(Male genital projections sometimes greatly enlarged at apex.)

B Male genital projection enlarged, plates hammer like................

Bods eR cl ee (Fla. Tex.) 1. placitus V.D. (N.C.) 2. montanus Mete.
BB Male genital projection triangular.

C Nervures all heavily dotted. Species large....................+-..

..(SE) 3. vicartus Wk. (NE) 4. quinquelineatus (N.C.) 5. vitreus Mete.

CC Nervures on the basal half of elytra pale, punctures scarcely show-

ing. Species smalkc. eo. i

A ee (Fla. Tex.) 6. difficilis V.D. (Fla.) 7. chuliotus Ball

AA Females with markings on elytra more or less linear (or oblique) or
obscure (no dashes along the costal area, evoptatus excepted). Vertex
variable, often broad and shallow, male genital projection never en-
larged.

D Species broad, often short and broad, the vertex as broad as long or
not over one third longer than broad.
E Elytra smoky. Females often with dashes along costa and occasion-
ally a transverse band.
F Elytra uniformly smoky, face definitely carinate................
FOS ie: «diac Seine Senet Rear mee eee (NW) 8. exoptatus V.D.
FF Elytra deep smoky, twice interrupted with white. Face tumid,
polished «ib 0 eet seen eee eee (Ariz.) 9. papagonus Ball
EE Elytra hyaline, costal area immaculate.
G ¢@ 8-10 mm. Elytra milky, the nervures darkened but scarcely
punctured.
H 2 10mm. Hlytra with markings... ° |: (Ariz.) 10. poma Kirk
HH 2 8mm. Elytra more or less ornamented..................
... 9 (Ariz.) 11. nogalanus Ball (South) 12. aridus Ball
GG @ 7mm. or less. Elytra various.
I General body color dark.
J @ witha heavy zig zag pattern on elytra... >... eee
tN oe Re kara ig (SW) 13. californicus V.D.
JJ 2 almost unmarked.
K Face tawny with large spots....-.........- 2.5: = eee
(Western 14. hespertus V.D. (Calif.) 15. truncatus V.D.
KK Face black, unmarked. Stigma small............:.--3.
eee iin ae eee, OS, eee ae eer (Calif.) 16. fidus V.D.
II General body color tan or lighter. >..9. 2.2. =. >. 2 eee

JUNE 15, 1934 BALL: THE GENUS OLIARUS 271

DD Species more or less elongate, the vertex more than 4 longer than
broad.
L Elytra hyaline or subhyaline, not deeply smoky.
M Body dark (or brown). The nervures dark or dark punctured.
N Elytra with the apical nervure and margin concolorous with
the adjoining nervures.
O The nervures of the elytra only faintly or sparsely dotted or
else the nervures dark so that the punctures are obscure.
P Front more than twice as broad across the antennae as at
base. Faun colored with a pair of yellow spots. Large.......
ie EERE ae WA a arn 3 San tn (Fla.) 18. slossont V.D.
PP Face much narrower, not twice wider on antennae than
at base, dark with the carinae light.
Q Large (3 mm. broad) Dark with the nervures dark

Troe hotie,. .2 cee cee... 2 ee (Ariz.) 19. corvinus Ball
QQ Smaller (2 mm. broad) paler or dark with the nervures
pale.

R Spine of anal segment of 2 produced into an acute
point extending into the genital cavity, 3rd anteapical
cell wanting, the fourth very broad at apex..........
nee eey th Ma, Teele Geis Subtropical) 20. complectus Ball

RR Anal segment of male without a spine extending into

genital cavity.
S 6 anteapical cells, the third but little longer than wide
IO «ALS NG a yma Ie Rea Pets (Ariz.) 21. yavapanus Ball
SS 5 anteapical cells the third wanting..............
ce A eae a ae (Ariz.) 22. coconinus Ball
OO The nervures at the base of the elytra pale, heavily and
evenly dotted.
T Elytra slightly tawny or smoky, the dots and cross nervures
MOGs PLOWMM EMIS 4 une yale (Fla.) 23. lttoralis Ball
TT Elytra hyaline with heavy dots and cross nervures.
U Vertex broad at base, the lateral fovae not half its length
ep a tec. See tas ate: 24. concinnulus Fowl.
UU Vertex narrow, the lateral fovae more than half its
ra nes ae ccs (Ariz. & Mex.) 25. apache Ball
NN Elytra with the apical margins narrowly ivory; the nervures,
at least on the apical portion, dark with heavy bristles.......
0 2 at et RR Rae NIE ne re en (Ariz.) 26. altanus Ball
MM Body tawny, the nervures pale except at apex................
sa ducreyi ge ae A aes A SO (Arid W.) 27. dondonius Ball
LL Elytra deep smoky or black, or at least the apical third dark.
V Elytra all smoky.
W Small (not 2mm. wide) costal margin of elytra dark...........
SE Saree a ee ae (SW & Mex. ) 28. nigro-alutaceus Fowl.
WW Large (4mm. wide) costal margin ma ErOnvityaw Niet ee
50 i MOE MRE Rae (North) 29. cinnamomeus Prov.
VV Apical third of elytra deep smoky..... (North) 30. humilis Say

Oliarus chuliotus Ball n. sp.
Size and form of difficilis Van D. nearly, slightly smaller and decidedly
whiter. Length 4.5—5 mm.
Vertex slightly longer and narrower than in difficilis, the front much nar-

272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6°

rower with the basal fork of the carina subobsolete, the front slightly longer
than the clypeus, while in difficilis it is reversed. Mesonotum with the five
carinae distinct, while dzfficilis shows only three. Male styles short and stout
with a stout hook at right angles extending one third of their length beyond
the short pygofers. In difficilis the styles are longer, the hooked portion
shorter and stouter and the whole not extending beyond the elongated py-
gofer margins.

Color pale cinnamon brown above and below; the face without white
spots, an elongated white spot on the carinae of vertex, the anterior fovae
black, a dark brown area outside the lateral carinae of mesonotum. Elytra
milky subhyaline over a dark abdomen; the apical third slightly smoky
with the transverse nervures infuscated with brown; sometimes a brown
cloud inside the stigma. In the females, an elongated black spot back of the
middle of the commissure.

Holotype 9 April 17, 1927, allotype & Apr. 18, 1927, paratype females
Apr. 17, 1927, and Apr. 15, 1928, all taken by the writer at Sanford, Fla. A
female, Homestead, Fla., May 15, 1928. A male, Eustice, Fla. Apr. 6, 1926,
taken by the writer and a male, Haw Creek, Fla., Oct. 8, 1887. Strikingly
distinct in color and genitalia.

Oliarus papagonus Ball n. sp.

Resembling exoptatus Van D. but slightly smaller, darker with rather in-
definite white bands across the elytra. Elytra smoky, face and mesonotum
black, polished with the carinae obscure. Length 4-5 mm.

Vertex narrower than in exoptatus or fidus Van D., a little longer than
wide, parallel margined instead of broadening behind as in those species. The
basal tablet of vertex narrow and forming a long oval in front, instead of
very broad and almost truncate before the tumid apex as in the species
mentioned. The whole face evenly convex, polished with the carinae almost
obsolete. Mesonotum broad, tumid, polished with obscure carinae. Elytra
broad, short, with prominent nervures and heavy setigerous bristles. Male
styles with the reflexed portion little wider than the shank and only slightly
exceeding the pygofers, the dorsal membrane broad and elevated into a
roof-like structure over the styles. ,

Color, dark smoky, with indistinct white bands across the elytra. Face and
mesonotum shining black, the latter margined outside with white. Vertex
dark, the carinae rather broadly light.

Holotype @, allotype &, and 13 paratypes Eloy, Ariz., June 3, 1933, all
taken by the writer from a few mesquite trees growing in an area where
Lycium sp. was abundant.

Oliarus nogalanus Ball n. sp.

Smaller and narrower than pima Kirk, the female more definitely orna-
mented, resembling aridus Ball but darker and more slender, much more
heavily clothed with setigerous bristles than in either of the others. Length
6-8 mm., width 2 mm.

Vertex, within the carinae and omitting the fovae, as long as wide instead
of wider than long as in arzdus or nearly twice wider than long as in pima.
Face slightly narrower than in aridus. Male styles with the shanks narrow
and the hooked portion broad and roundingly right angled, extending con-
siderably beyond the short rounding lateral margins of the pygofers. The
dorsal membrane very short and rounding with a slight elevation in the

JUNE 15, 1934 BALL: THE GENUS OLIARUS 273

center. In arzdus the styles are acutely angled, the pygofers long and the
dorsal membrane projects in a long triangle, while in pima the hook is still
thicker and the dorsal membrane is both longer and broader.

Color brown; a pair of creamy spots on margins of face just below the
antennae; the carinae of vertex and pronotum white, elytra in female slightly
milky, the nervures dark, the bristles darker, with the forks and cross
nervures marked with smoky, which in heavily marked individuals coalesces
into two oblique bands toward the apex.

Holotype 9, Nogales, Aug. 7, 1932, allotype o, Santa Rita Mts., July
19, 1931, and 14 paratypes taken with the types and from Douglas, Pata-
gonia and Tucson. All taken by the writer in the mountains of Arizona.

Oliarus corvinus Ball n. sp.

Resembling complectus Ball, but larger and darker with heavy pilosity.
Black with the carinae orange. Length 5-6 mm.

Vertex relatively long and narrow with the fovae long, slender, reaching
the middle of vertex. Base of front narrower and more heavily carinate than
in complectus. Pronotum larger and more heavily carinate than in complectus,
elytra longer with the nervures darker and more heavily clothed with
setigerous punctures. The third anteapical either reduced or wanting, the
fourth about as wide as the adjoining cells instead of much wider as in com-
plectus. Male styles stout, the hook broad, evenly rounding, exceeding the
truncate pygofers by nearly their width. Dorsal hood moderately broad and
almost evenly rounding except for a slight central depression, instead of
rather narrow and acutely produced into the genital cavity as in com-
plectus.

Color black, all carinae broadly orange. Elytra hyaline or slightly smoky,
the nervures dark and heavily clothed with dark hairs. Genitalia cinnamon.

Holotype @, allotype o&, and 12 paratypes, Patagonia Aug. 8, 1932.
This species is widely distributed in southern Arizona and is easily dis-
tinguished by its size.

OLIARUS COMPLECTUS Ball

O. complectus Ball Can. Ent. 34: p. 152. 1902.
(O. lactetpennis Fowl. Bio. Cent. Am. Homop. Vol. 1, p. 98. 1904)
(O. humeralis Fowl. op. cit. p. 94)
(O. franciscanus V.D. Cat. p. 732 [Not Stal])

This species was described from 25 examples from Haiti, Md., Kans.,
Ariz., and Colo. The present study brings out the fact that there were at
least two and probably three species included in the original material. In
order to definitely limit it to the species intended in the original description,
the holotype is fixed on a female from Port Au Prince, Haiti, and the allo-
type on a male from the same place, both examples so labeled and in the
author’s collection.

Thus limited the species may be known by the fact that the anal segment
projects down into the genital cavity in the form of a median spine. Ex-
amples are at hand from Haiti, many places in Florida, southern Arizona and
adjacent Mexico. Van Duzee places this species as a synonym of franciscanus
of Stal, largely on size and distribution no doubt, as Stal’s description is

274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

purely generic. As there are at least four species treated in this paper that
would meet these requirements, it seems best to consider Stal’s species as
unknown until such time as our west coast forms are better known and
Stal’s type can be critically studied.

Oliarus yavapanus Ball n. sp.

Resembling complectus but with a narrower vertex, and 6 anteapicals, paler
with smoky elytra. Length o' 4mm.; 2 nearly 6 mm.

Vertex twice longer than wide, the fovae scarcely half its length, the
lateral carinae high, almost foliaceous. In profile the vertex and face form
a slightly obtuse angle. Mesonotum with five definite carinae, the inner pair
strongly sinuate and together with the outer pair enclosing an oval compart-
ment posteriorly. Elytra long and slender, six apical cells the third little
longer than wide. Male with the anal segment forming a narrow and uni-
formly rounding hood back of the long, narrow, angularly hooked, dark
brown styles.

Color dark brown to black, the carinae broadly orange, elytra slightly
smoky in females, rarely so in the males. The darkening emphasized on the
apical cells. The nervures distinctly but not conspicuously punctured. The
stigma not as prominent as in complectus or corvinus.

Holotype 2, allotype o, and a pair of paratypes, Ashfork Aug. 16,
1929, six paratypes Ashfork July 15, 1929, three Yarnell Heights July 21,
1929, and two from the same place Aug. 20, 1929. All collected by the writer
from the higher table lands or mountains of Arizona.

Oliarus coconinus Ball n. sp.

Stouter than complectus Ball, resembles yavapanus Ball, but with a broader
vertex and only five anteapicals. Female elytra heavily smoky posteriorly ;
male hyaline. Length «1 4.5mm.; @ 5.5mm.

Vertex broader behind than in yavapanus especially in the female. In
profile the vertex meets the front in a right angle. Elytra long and slender
with five anteapical cells, the fourth scarcely broader than the others, the
stigma elongate. Male anal hood broad on the lateral margins, deeply emar-
ginate medially, where it is distant from the short, stout, bright yellow styles
that terminate in round slightly divergent plates.

Color dark brown or black, the carinae narrowly orange. Elytra smoky
in the female especially on the transverse nervures, hyaline in the male,
nervures dark, sparsely and inconspicuously ornamented with setigerous
punctures. A dark line along the median portion of the sutural margin.

Holotype 2, allotype o, and one male paratype Williams July 13, 1929,
a female Aug. 15, 1929, a female Flagstaff Aug. 7, 1929, and two ’ males
Huachuca Mts., Aug. 2, 1931, all taken by the writer ‘from the table lands or
mountains in Arizona.

Oliarus littoralis Ball n. sp.

Form of complectus Ball nearly, slightly shorter and stouter, resembles
sementinus Ball in form and color, but with a much longer, narrower head.
Pale brown with the carinae light; elytra pale tawny with the nervures punc-
tured and darker towards apex. Length 4.5 to 5.5 mm.

Vertex and mesonotum about as in yavapanus Ball, the elytra with six
anteapicals, punctures on nervures strong and extending almost to base.

JUNE 15, 1934 BALL: THE GENUS OLIARUS 275

Male anal segment broad and emarginate as in coconinus Ball, the styles
stout with long angularly reflexed heads.

Color, pale tawny; the vertex and mesonotum pale to dark brown with
the carinae broadly light. Front and clypeus dark brown or darker, but
with the carinae broadly light. Elytra tawny subhyaline, the nervures pale
tawny and heavily punctured to the cross nervures beyond which they shade
to smoky.

Holotype 2, allotype o, and seven pairs of paratypes taken by the writer
at Tampa, Fla. Sept. 10, 1927. This tawny species resembles dondonzus but
is much darker, with the styles broader and more hairy, the hood with the
lateral flaps overhanging the genital chamber, while in dondonius the hood
is only a marginal line. Besides the type set, the writer has taken this species
in a number of places along the east coast of Florida.

OLIARUS CONCINNULUS Fowler

O. concinnulus Fowl. Bio. Cent. Am. Homop. Vol. 1, p. 92. 1904.
(O. texanus Mete. Journ. El. Mitch. Sci. Soe. 38: 181. 1923)
(O. vittatus (2) Mete. Op. cit. 181. [Not holotype <])

This is a short broad species, (4-6 mm.), but the vertex is more than 3
longer than its width. The elytra are milky with heavily punctured nervures,
pale at the base but becoming dark beyond the cross nervures. The stigma
is large and there are usually two black spots in an oblique line from it to
the scutellum. The female often has a broad, longitudinal, slightly interrupted
stripe near the inner margin of each elytron.

Habitat, Vera Cruz and Guerrero, Mexico (Fowler) and Brownsville,
Texas. Fowler suggested that this species may have to be referred to O.
lunatus Fab. as represented by material which the writer sent him. That
material, however, represents a very distinct species.

Oliarus apache Ball n. sp.

Resembling concinnulus Fowl. in size and form, darker with a narrower
vertex. Black with the carinae on head narrowly light. Elytra milky with
close set, black punctures, each bearing a long curved black hair. Length
4—6 mm.

Vertex much narrower than in concinnulus, the fovae long, extending
more than half way to base. Mesonotum with three, heavy, parallel carinae,
the intermediate pair only faintly indicated. The anal segment much more
extended than in concinnulus, the styles more slender and asymmetrical,
the left one larger and slightly notched at apex.

Color black above and below, the carinae on vertex and pronotum nar-
rowly light, a pair of white spots on the carinae between the eyes and an-
nother pair on the extended apical margins of the front. Mesonotal carinae
concolorous or slightly orange, elytra milky, the nervures white through-
out, except the marginal nervures, heavily and closely punctured with black
and clothed with long curved black hairs. The forks and cross-nervures
broadly black. The stigma coriaceous white except for aggregated punctures
on the boundary nervure.

Holotype @, allotype o, and 4 paratypes May 15, 1933 and nine para-
types May 19, 1929, all taken by the writer at Tucson, Ariz. This strikingly

276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

distinct species has been taken in the Creosote deserts around Tucson, at
Patagonia and Tinajas Altas in Ariz. and near Hermosillo, Mexico.

Oliarus altanus Ball n. sp.

Resembling apache Ball, but longer, slenderer with extremely long narrow
elytra, and coarse irregular veins that are definitely black in the apical
region against the broad white margin. Length 5 mm.

Vertex slightly broader and deeper than in apache, the front longer and
narrower. Elytra extremely long and slender, the inner fork of the radius
approaching and paralleling the medius for some distance, nervures and cells
in the apical portion tending to irregularity with the third apical narrow and
curved. The stigmal cell extremely long and narrow, four times as long as
its width.

Color, black, the bounding carinae, except on mesonotum, narrowly light,
median carinae of front tawny, a pair of semi-circular white spots on the
carinae adjacent to the eyes. Elytra milky white, the bounding nervure
broadly white, the remaining nervures either all dark or dark spotted at
base and all dark towards apex in striking contrast to the margin.

Holotype @, allotype o, and two male paratypes taken by the writer at
Tinajas Altas, Ariz. May 17, 1932.

Oliarus dondonius Ball n. sp.

Resembling sementinus Ball in color, slightly smaller, but with a vertex
one half as wide. Form of yavapanus Ball nearly, much paler with a pale
stigma. Pale tawny with a castaneous mesonotum. Length 4.5-5.5 mm.

Vertex as in yavapanus nearly, the fovae narrowed, pronotum much
shorter and rarely reaching the epaulets at the shoulders. Elytra slightly
broader with only 5 anteapical cells and a narrow stigma, half longer than
its basal width.

Color, pale tawny, the elytra paler. The face in the males, the lateral
fovae and sometimes longitudinal stripes on the mesonotum, brown. Elytra
with the nervures on the basal half indistinct, becoming tawny, towards the
apex with the cross nervures smoky.

Holotype @, allotype o’, and 10 paratypes, Tucson, Ariz. July 24, 1930,
A paratypes, Grand Junction, Aug. 7, 1906, all taken by the writer on sea
blite (Dondia). This species is common in alkaline areas from western
Colorado through Utah to Arizona and Sonora, Mexico. It is a smaller and
much narrower headed species than sementinus which it otherwise resembles.

ADVANCE SUMMARIES

BIOLOGY .—Viability of bacteria in air.1 W. ¥F. Wxuts, Harvard School
of Public Health. (Communicated by W. H. BRADLEY.)

A technique has been devised for study of the viability of droplet nuclei
infection in air, by determining the differential disappearance rates in a con-
trolled atmosphere of the infection and of the nuclei, and will be described
more fully in a later publication. Preliminary experiments demonstrate that

1 Presented before Section N. of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, Dec. 27, 1933. Received April 24, 1934.

JUNE 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 277

the viability of pathogenic micro-organisms constitutes a more important
limiting factor in the localization of droplet nuclei infection than does the
rate at which droplet nuclei settle from the atmosphere.

Since the rate of fall of small droplets is proportional to the surface, and
the rate of change of surface is constant, the distance a small droplet falls
before ceasing to be a droplet is proportional to the fourth power of the di-
ameter. Droplets less than 0.1 mm. in diameter, expelled from the nose or
mouth, will dry under ordinary atmospheric conditions before reaching the
ground. Droplet nuclei from broth culture of B. subtilis, atomized into a
still chamber of 200 cubic feet capacity, were recovered from the air after
several days. Though resistant organisms could be recovered from the air of
the experimental chamber up to a week after inoculation, Pfeiffer’s bacillus
was not recovered after one hour.

Four organisms typical of infections of the passages of the upper respira-
tory tract, B. pneumoniae, B. diphtheriae, Streptococcus hemolyticus and
Streptococcus viridans, were recovered from the air in small numbers forty-
eight hours after inoculation, although in rapidly decreasing numbers. Or-
ganisms typical of the digestive tract, B. coli, B. typhosus, B. paratyphoid
A, and B. dysenteriae Hiss Y, were not recovered after eight hours and were
invariably absent at the end of the first day. Bacteriophage was recovered
and identified after being suspended in air for 24 hours. It had decreased in
a manner characteristic of microorganisms.

CONCLUSIONS

A distinction must be made between droplets, droplet nuclei, and dust, in
considering air-borne infection. Droplets larger than 0.2 mm. are localized
by rate of fall to the vicinity of the source both in time and space. Droplet
nuclei derived from evaporation of droplets less than 0.1 mm. diameter are
dispersed in time and space. Localization of dust also varies with the size
of the particles. Droplet infection is largely localized and concentrated,
whereas Droplet nuclei infection tends toward dispersion and dilution and
the possibility of infection is limited in time chiefly by the viability of the
microorganisms. Dust infection may be localized either in space by the local-
ization of particles, or in time by the viability of the infection.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

NOTES .

National Academy of Sciences.—The spring meeting of the National Acad-
emy of Sciences was held in Washington, April 23, 24 and 25, under the
presidency of Dr. W. W. CampsxE.. The principal evening address was de-
livered by Dr. Epwin Hussxe of the Mount Wilson Observatory of the

278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

Carnegie Institution of Washington, on ‘‘The Realm of the Nebulae.” Dr.
HvusBs.e described the present Observable Region as having a diameter of
some 600 million light years, and containing approximately 100 million
known spiral nebulae. A substantial enlargement of the Observable Region,
the speaker stated, can be expected after the completion of the 200-inch
reflector now under construction.

Spectrographic detection of large proportions of methane in the atmos-
pheres of the major outer planets was announced at the meeting through a
telegram sent by Director V. M. SiipHer of Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff,
Ariz. The tell-tale lines in the spectra of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Nep-
tune were interpreted in considerable part by Dr. ArRTHuR ADEL of the
University of Michigan. Presence of massive quantities of methane in the
atmospheres of the giant planets has a possible significance for the still un-
solved riddle of their surface temperatures, Dr. Henry Norris Russeuy of
Princeton University said, in commenting on Dr. SLIPHER’s telegram. At a
temperature of —161.4 degrees Centigrade this gas becomes a liquid, un-
able to betray its presence through reflected light rays. Of course, under the
different gravity and atmospheric-density conditions on the great planets
the boiling point of methane might be different.

The intensity of a sound and its frequency are quite distinct physical
attributes, but the corresponding ‘psychological attributes of loudness and
pitch are not so independent; a loud tone sounds lower in pitch than a high
one, and a low tone sounds unduly loud, it was indicated by a report of the
National Academy of Sciences delivered at the annual meeting by Dr.
Harvey FuetcHER, of the Bell Telephone Laboratories. It was found that
a 50-cycle tone with an intensity which is 10,000 times that of a just barely
audible sound appears just as loud as a 1,000 cycle tone with an intensity
1,000,000,000 times that of the threshold. The apparent pitch of a tone also
depends upon its intensity. The pitch of a 200-cycle tone was heard as being
as much as a quarter of an octave lower at the very high intensities than at
the low intensities. However, when the tones were of very high frequencies,
near 2,000 or 3,000 cycles, such changes of apparent pitch with intensity were
not observed.

Distilled water, replacing ordinary tap water containing its usual quota of
highly dilute mineral substances, produces anesthesia in plant cells, seem-
ingly by dissolving out of them some unknown organic stuff. This observa-
tion was presented by Dr. W. J. V. OsrerHoutT and Dr. 8. E. H1ut of the
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. When cells of Nitella are placed
in distilled water they presently become completely anesthetic, transmit-
ting no variations in potential along the protoplasm. This loss of sensitivity
is hastened by the addition of acids or alkalis, but slowed by the addition of
calcium. The anesthetic state passes off again when the cells are replaced in
tap water.

Honored after his death, for his researches on the skull of ancient Peking
Man, Dr. Davipson BLAck was given the posthumous award of the Elliot
Medal for 1931, which carries with it a cash honorarium of $200. Dr. BLack
was designated to receive the award before his death in Peiping on March 15;
the medal and check were placed in the hands of Dr. FRANK DAwson ADAMS,
foreign associate of the Academy, on behalf of Dr. Buack’s widow. The first
award of the Charles Doolittle Walcott Medal and honorarium of $1,350
was made to Dr. Davip Waitt of the U. 8S. Geological Survey, in recognition
of his work on the pre-Cambrian algae of the Grand Canyon of Arizona. Other

JUNE 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 279

honors bestowed by the Academy were: the Agassiz Medal, awarded to Dr.
ByoRN HELLAND-HANSEN of the Geophysical Institute, Bergen, Norway;
the Public Welfare Medal, awarded to Dr. DAvip FartRrcuixp, of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture; and the Elliot Medal and honorarium of $200
for 1930, awarded to Dr. GEorGE ELLEeTT CoGHILL, Wistar Institute of An-
atomy and Biology, Philadelphia.

The American Geophysical Union.—Penetrating radiations resembling
cosmic rays, but softer, are thrown upward into the air from the tops of
thunderstorm clouds, like spray from the tops of waves. They come to earth
again to the eastward of the cloud, drawn down by the earth’s magnetic
field. These radiations, which are made up of negative electrons, were de-
seribed before the meeting of the American Geophysical Union here by Dr.
B. F. J. ScHONLAND of the University of Capetown, who is visiting in the
United States. Dr. SCHONLAND stated that when he began his investigations
of penetrating radiations caused by lightning, he thought that he would find
electrons poured directly earthward as well as upward into the higher levels
of the air; but this proved not to be the case. He has found that lightning-
engendered radiations can influence cosmic-ray detecting instruments as
much as a thousand miles away from.a thunderstorm, and he stated that
another investigator claims for them an even greater radius of action. But
their effect is always felt to the eastward of the storm that gives them birth,
never toward the west. The research was undertaken with the idea of finding
out whether cosmic rays were entirely the product of thunderstorms, as one
student of the subject had claimed. Dr. SCHONLAND is convinced that this is
not the case; nevertheless, there are enough lightning-caused penetrating
radiations to make it necessary for researchers on cosmic rays to take them
into account, if their figures are not to be falsified by thunderstorms.

New 40-inch reflector at Naval Observatory—The new 40-inch reflector
built for the U. 8. Naval Observatory under the direction of Grorcr W.
RitcHry has been completed. The instrument is designed especially for
spectrographic observation. Figured on. new curves calculated by Mr.
RitcHey and HENRI CHRETIEN, it is expected to be as efficient as a reflector
of several times its aperture based on the conventional paraboloid figure.

It is the first air cooled telescope. The entire observatory building is built
of very light metal, with double walls, so that at night the temperature will
soon become the same as the surrounding air. With more massive buildings,
the stone and brick absorb heat all day, and give it off long into the night,
producing objectionable air currents which spoil the clearness of the tele- -
scopic images. In order to keep the telescope at its night time temperature, a
felt canopy will be placed over it in the daytime. This is connected with air
cooling equipment, so that all day the telescope will be kept at the temper-
ature expected that night.

The tube of the telescope is constructed with a unique system of counter-
poises, so as to prevent bending. Convenience of the observer is also remem-
bered, and he is provided with a movable observing platform which auto-
matically keeps him at the eyepiece as the telescope turns. Thus he does not
need to interrupt his work frequently to adjust himself.

U. S. Weather Bureau.—With the cooperation of the War, Navy, and
Commerce Departments, the Weather Bureau of the U. 8. Department of
Agriculture, on July 1, 1934, will launch part of its new program for increas-
ing the accuracy of its forecasts, W. R. Greaa, chief, has announced. This
hew program, among other things, calls for more stations for upper air

280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

soundings by airplanes and for more frequent daily forecasts. The part
covering more airplane observations can now be put into effect.

The air-mass method of forecasting, long recognized as an aid to accuracy
and to longer forecasts, has never been practicable in the Weather Bureau’s
daily routine because of the difficulty of getting the needed upper-air observa-
tions. Facilities offered by Army and Navy pilots at more than a dozen
selected stations, at six specially-equipped Weather Bureau airway stations,
and at one cooperative station at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
now remove this difficulty. The Department of Commerce will provide for
the transmission of the observations from the points where they are taken
to. the forecasting stations. According to the present plan, observation
flights will be confined to one a day, each beginning about half past five
(E.S.T.) in the morning and reaching a maximum height of 17,000 feet above
sea level. These flights will be made by Army and Navy pilots and by com-
mercial aviators hired for the purpose by the Weather Bureau. Meteorolo-
gists of the Weather Bureau assigned to the air-observation stations will
compute, code, and transmit to forecast stations the information the meteor-
ographs bring down. This information will give forecasters an important
supplement to the morning surface observations in drawing the weather
maps to be used in making the daily forecasts.

Children’s Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor.—The complete, detailed
report of the study of maternal deaths in 15 states made by the Children’s
Bureau at the request and with the cooperation of state medical societies
and state boards of health is now in press and will appear at an early date.
Interest in this subject has been intensified by discussion of the recently pub-
lished report of similar study in New York City by the New York Academy
of Medicine. The Children’s Bureau study was made before that of the New
York Academy of Medicine which used the same schedule or questionnaire.
In both studies the material was gathered by physicians through personal
interviews with those who attended the women who died and in both studies
the international list of causes of death was used as the basis of analysis.
The most obvious differences between the two studies lie in the area covered:
15 states in the children’s Bureau study, 47 per cent of deaths being in
urban and 53 per cent in rural areas, whereas the New York City deaths
were all urban; the larger number of deaths: 7,400 in the Children’s Bureau
study and 2,000 in the New York study; and the greater detail of analysis
in the Children’s Bureau study.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Dr. Aurs Hrpuicka, of the U. 8. National Museum, is again spending the
summer in archaeological work among the Alaskan islands. He has with him
a group of student volunteers.

Dr. F. A. Wourr, chief of the telephone standards section, National
Bureau of Standards, has been designated as a member of the Committee of
Departmental Representatives appointed at the instance of Admiral Peo-
ples, Director of the Procurement Division, to determine the cost of the
Government’s communication services, including telephone, telegraph, and
radio.

CONTENTS|

Oniginat Papers”

Zoology.—A new pocket mouse from Sonora. E, w. Nexsox and |
Cee i ee

an ee eS

ScIENTIFIC Norss AND News.. eeecevoevceeeevevece Se ° Le es us eeneee

aes

ASHINGTON ACADEMY

JULY 15, 1934 | | No. 7

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Vou. 24 JuLY 15, 1934 | No.7

MATHEMATICS.—Spinors.! OswaLtp VEBLEN, The Institute for
Advanced Study, Princeton.

The theory of spinors had its origin in the search for a suitable
mathematical tool to use in the extension of the quantum theory to
the field of relativity. The quantum mechanics in the form that was
given to it by Schroedinger describes the motion of a particle by
means of the concept of a wave. It is not, as people used to say, that
a physicist thinks of an electron as a particle on Mondays, Wednes-
days, and Fridays, and as a wave on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Satur-
days, and on Sundays prays for a Messiah who will lead him back to
the belief which he held on Mondays. The actual situation is quite
different from that. He works with a mathematical theory which he
visualizes for some purposes by means of the classical conception of a
particle and for other purposes by means of the imagery of the wave
theory. The wave that he works with is just a funetion which satisfies
a partial differential equation of a certain type. The physicist be-
lieves that by applying a certain integration process to the solution
of this partial differential equation he is able to express the proba-
bility that the particle which he thinks of shall be in a certain pre-
assigned position with a certain preassigned velocity.

The whole thing is an attempt to find mathematical formulas and
language for the discussion of phenomena which did not make sense
in terms of the language and formulas which the physicists had been
using before. Some people actually go so far as to say that we shall
have to make real changes in our habits of thought and use of lan-
guage. But I am referring to these deep and difficult questions only

incidentally. I am concerned with something much more superficial.
1 This is the fourth of the Joseph Henry Lectures of the Philosophical Society
presented March 31, 1934, in honor of the first president of the Philosophical Society.

his paper was prepared from stenographic notes taken at the time of the lecture.
Received June 2, 1934.

281

282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

The spinor theory grew out of the attempt to reconcile the wave
mechanics with the relativity theory. The wave mechanics was at first
developed so as to fit into the framework of the classical dynamics.
On the other hand, the theory of relativity has taken such a firm hold
of all branches of physics that everyone is convinced that a really
sound theory must take it into account. Therefore, the problem was
to find a relativistic formulation of the quantum theory.

Also there was experimental evidence indicating that from the
partial point of view an electron should not be considered just as a
mathematical point but rather as a thing which is capable of a rotary
motion, or spin, at the same time that it has a motion of translation.
The problem of bringing this concept into the theory of the electron
turned out to be closely related to the problem of giving a relativistic
formulation to the differential equations of the electron.

What looks like a very good solution of the problem was developed
by Dirac, building upon previous work of Pauli and others. Dirac
modified the Schroedinger differential equation not only by changing
its form but by replacing it by a system of four equations with four
unknown wave functions, y, ¥’, ¥3, ¥4. These four functions were
related among themselves in what seemed to be a very intricate
manner, but they were evidently the components of a physical
quantity of some sort.

When I speak of a physical quantity I am thinking of something
which has components analogous to the components of a vector.
When you take the three rectangular components of a velocity you
recognize that you are taking components of something which has a
physical existence. In the same way the quantities which appeared
in the Dirac equation were evidently components of some sort of a
physical object. But they behaved quite differently from the com-
ponents of any previously known physical quantity and thus Bao
vided a puzzle for the mathematical physicist.

The problem was clearly formulated by the late Professor Ehren-
fest. He said, in affect: We are familiar with such things as vectors
which are the tools of classical physics. Since the advent of the rela-
tivity theory we have got acquainted with the theory of tensors and
have been led to believe that any physical phenomena could be de-
scribed by means of tensors. Now comes a new kind of a physical
quantity which is not a tensor and yet has to be taken into account.
It has something to do with a spinning electron. Let us call it a
spinor. Then he called on the mathematicians to provide a theory of
spinors, if possible, analogous to the theory of tensors.

JULY 15, 1934 VEBLEN: SPINORS 283

The elements of such a theory were in fact already available in
Diraec’s own work and in the previous work of Darwin and Pauli. The
Dirac equation had also been adequately discussed from the point
of view of the underlying group theory by Wey] in his book on group
theory and quantum mechanics, so that implicitly a good deal of the
requisite theory was in existence. Nevertheless, so long as it was pos-
sible for a mathematical physicist of the order of magnitude of Ehren-
fest to regard it as obscure there remained something of a problem.

Promptly in response to Ehrenfest’s challenge, a format theory of
spinors was produced by van der Waerden. This was a theory of two-
component spinors which was adequate to the Dirac equation in its
original form. But here one has to say, as in so many other cases, that
a fully satisfactory account of the subject was possible only after
the original theory had been highly generalized. It was in fact so in
this case. The original Dirac equation was relevant to the special
relativity. The extension to general relativity was indicated first by
Weyl and Fock and the system of mathematical equations thus de-
termined has been studied by Schouten, Schroedinger, Einstein and
Mayer, and other mathematical physicists. From these studies there
has now emerged a clear conception of a class of physical objects
which we call spinors and which can be precisely defined.

I shall try to state this definition. In doing so I propose to repeat a
number of well-known elementary ideas leading up to the one step
which introduces the definition. After this is done the whole matter
may seem rather trivial, but it is nevertheless, true that after this
foundation is laid the working out of the theory becomes a matter of
technical detail.

We start with elementary geometry. How are the points in a room
to be described? The first step in such a description is to give names
to the points so as to distinguish them, and we agree to use numbers
as names. A point will have a first name xz, a second name y, and a
third name z. The way which we all know for assigning these names
is to let x be the distance of the point from the floor, y the distance
from the wall at the front of the room, and z the distance from the side
wall. That way of assigning the names is of course completely arbi-
trary. It could be done in some perfectly bizarre way so long as you
satisfied the condition of giving different names to different points.
A system of naming the points is what we call a coordinate system.

I have mentioned a particular way of naming the points only to
emphasize the fact that the particular system we use for assigning
these names is of no importance. We can, in fact, when we have one

284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 7

way of naming them, get any number of other ways by the following
device. Suppose you write down these three equations:

X=e2xe+y
oe i == yf (1)
Zee

If we substitute in these equations the numbers 2, y, and z appearing
in the name of this point, we get three other numbers (X, Y, Z) which
gives us a new name for the point, and so we have a new coordinate ~
system. These equations can be solved to give

2 = 4(X + ¥)
y = i(X — Y) (2)
SE

If we apply these equations to any point in the room and know the
names X, Y, Z, we are able to get back the names 7, y, z. We have a
dictionary which translates one system of nomenclature for our points
into another system of nomenclature. This dictionary is what we call
a transformation of coordinates.
In general, a transformation of coordinates
(@, y, 2) > (X, Y, Z)

is defined if we replace the right-hand members of equations (1) by
quite arbitrary functions subject only to the condition that (1)
should be capable of being solved so as to obtain the inverse trans-
formation
CG Y, Z) ani (a Y; z)

analogous to (2). In all this we confine attention to points in the
room, that is to say, to a limited portion of space. In practice we re-
quire that the functions used shall be amenable to the processes of
analysis such as differentiation, etc., corresponding to the technique
of the mathematician of the present epoch. |

The essential point which I should like to stress in this considera-
tion of coordinate systems and transformations of coordinates is that
the coordinate system is something which we ourselves introduce. It
is something in addition to the physical state that we are trying to
describe and represents our point of view towards the natural phe-
nomena which are under consideration. To be objective, we must
somehow or other get away from this thing that we have introduced.
In previous generations mathematicians and physicists used to play
with the idea of doing without coordinates. The geometry of Euclid
is an example in which coordinates were not used and the attempt was

JULY 15, 1934 VEBLEN: SPINORS 285

made to reason directly with the physical objects we were talking
about. Many will recall the time when it was regarded as important
to do vector analysis without coordinates. This idea was based on the
feeling that by so doing one was dealing with the natural object it-
self.

An equally good way of being free from the influence of the coordi-
nates introduced is to use all coordinate systems. Using no coordinate
system is, so to speak, the dual idea to using all possible coordinate
systems. If you arrange your work in such a way that it applies no
matter what the coordinate system is, then you have reached the
ideal of dealing with the object itself. This point of view has become
very common since the discussions which were brought about by the
theory of relativity.

In dealing with physical problems much use is made of vectors. A
vector is a special case of what we can call a physical object with
components. The idea is something like this: Supposing that in a
room we have at every point a tendency of a certain sort, no matter
what sort, but a tendency in a definite direction with a definite mag-
nitude. That tendency can be defined by associating with each point
(7, ¥, 2) three numbers V!, V2, V°.

Vi@,y, 2) V(a,y,2) Va, y, 2).

They describe this tendency and they are the components of some-
thing that represents a physical state of affairs. If this physical ob-
ject is a vector, then on making a transformation into a new coordi-
nate system you will get functions

We 2) | AG) Ge)
of the coordinates z, 7, 2. When you measure this physical object in
the new coordinate system, you will get the new set of quantities

V', V2, V3, and there will be definite formulas which tell you what
these components in the new coordinate system are:

Vi = f1(V!, V2, V3) “V2 = £2(V}, V2, V3) =~ = £3(V}, V2, V3).
You will have three formulas of this sort which express the new com-
ponents as functions of the old ones. There is no need of my mention-
ing what these formulas are in detail, for in talking about a subject
which is full of formulas, we should be hopelessly lost if we got tangled
up with particular formulas. The essential point which I want to bring
out is that when you change to a new coordinate system you get a
new set of components and in every coordinate system there is a set
of components for the physical object. If the law which tells you the

286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 24, NO. 7

new components in terms of the old components is of a particularly
simple sort, then your physical object is a vector. There are lots of
other physical objects. For example there are physical objects with
9 components that you could call 7,1, 7; 2, T1 3, ete., using two in-
dices. Then if you have a certain formula connecting the components
in one coordinate system with those in another, the thing you are
talking about is a tensor of the second order. The essential things
about a tensor are that it is a physical object with components, and
that the components are uniquely determined when the coordinate
system is given in terms of which the components are described. J am
intentionally leaving this statement in a thoroughly abstract form.

When we come to the theory of relativity we must pass from the
three-dimensional space of points to the four-dimensional world of
events. This is a story which you have probably heard many times.
If you want to describe the events which take place in this room, you
have to give not merely x, y, and z which tell you where, but also f,
which tells you when, for each event. The essential point is that the
events we talk about are things which are capable of being named by
means of four names, the four names being numbers. This can be ex-
pressed by saying that the events constitute a four-dimensional
world or space-time.

Let us transfer what we have just been saying about coordinate
systems from the world of points over to the world of events. We make
the same remark that we made before. The essential thing about a
coordinate system for events is not any particular way of setting up
the coordinate system but is the fact that the coordinate system as-
signs distinct names to different events.

In order to make an objective description of the world of events,
we deal with the totality of coordinate systems. We keep free from
any particular point of view and so talk about all coordinate systems
at once. For this purpose we have a complete theory of transforma-
tions of coordinates and a theory of vectors and tensors. A tensor is a
physical object such that with every event we are able to associate
a set of numbers called its components when we have before us a given
coordinate system. If we change to a new coordinate system we get a
new set of components of the same physical object.

Thus in the general relativity theory itself we have a set of 16
functions

Gin (@ 1 ee Gua (0020 +) ee OA Eee oe

These functions of the coordinates are the components of a physical

JULY 15, 1934 VEBLEN: SPINORS 287

object called the fundamental gravitational tensor. They satisfy a
system of partial differential equations, and the theory of these equa-
tions is the relativity theory. The general conception is this: We as-
sume that a given body of physical phenomena is representable by a
physical object with components of a certain tyve, and the theory
of these phenomena is contained in the set of differential equations
which the components satisfy. This, without any formalism, is the
basic mathematical idea which appears in the relativity theory.

Continuing in that theory, it turns out that there are certain other
kinds of geometrical objects which have to be considered. The ones
which appear first are the electromagnetic potentials. Again there are
four components

1, Po, 3; ps

which are functions of the coordinates. But, as physicists know, when
you give the coordinate system the electromagnetic potentials are
not fully determined. You can take another function f(z!, x?, x’, «*)
and add the four derivatives of this function to the components, ob-
taining
of of of of

di + eae de + a? ds + ery ds + Se
without changing the physical significance of these potentials.

Let us try to say what is essential in this without using technical
language. It ought to be clear even to those who do not know what
these differentiation symbols mean. When we specify a definite co-
ordinate system we have not only one set of four functions which
appear as the components of our physical object, but we have a
whole class of other sets of components. The physical object in ques-
tion is of an essentially different kind from those which we have
previously been talking about. Its components are not fully deter-
mined when the coordinate system is given; something in addition
has to be specified before the components are known. This additional
something which we have to specify we will call a gauge frame.

I might also try to put it in the following way: We previously said
that when we introduce a coordinate system we put something into
the phenomena of nature, and before we can be talking about nature
itself we have to get free of the coordinate system which we put in.
When we talk about electromagnetic potentials, we put something
else in, namely, the gauge frame, which has to be specified before we
can specify the particular set of components which we are talking
about.

288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

So our theory has to be such that we make not only transformations
of coordinates but transformations of gauge, and we have to formu-
late our laws of physical phenomena in a manner which is unaltered
not only by changes of coordinate system but also by changes of
gauge. Physicists have heard a good deal about that under the head-
ing of gauge invariance. The underlying idea is just as before: In try-
ing to describe nature we have introduced not only coordinate sys-
tems, but also another extraneous element called the gauge frame.
In addition to the theory of coordinate transformations, there is a
theory of gauge transformations which has to be recognized in order
to free our theory of physical phenomena from this element which we
introduced in our view of nature.

The theory of spinors requires another step in this direction. A
spinor is a physical object with components. The number of com-
ponents is a power of four. In a particular case a spinor may have
four components Yi, Wo, 3, ws. The components are functions of the
coordinates just as the ¢’s and g’s were, but when the coordinate sys-
tem and the gauge frame are given, the components of the spinor are
not fully determined. You can take a new set of components i, Wo,
Ws, Ws, which will serve equally well as a set of components of this
spinor. The new components are given by means of linear formulas
in terms of the old components,

WY a Tin sp IA == T 33 ae Ti;

and three other formulas which look like this one. The coefficients T
are arbitrary functions. A linear transformation of this sort is called
a spin transformation.

When you have given your coordinates and your gauge, there is
still something free, which we will call the spin frame, and we are
unable to describe our physical object until the spin frame is fixed.
In other words, we have got to state everything that we say about a
spinor so that it will be true no matter what spin transformation is
applied to the components. A spin transformation is very analogous
to a coordinate transformation, but it takes place completely inde-
pendently of the coordinate transformation.

This is the simplest example of a spinor. There are spinors with 16
components or in general with 4; components and you will have linear
formulas which give you the other possible sets of components in the
same coordinate system.

I have not yet mentioned one of the important facts about spinors

JULY 15, 1934 VEBLEN: SPINORS 289

which give them their significance. Their components are not ordinary
numbers. They are complex numbers of the form

a++wWJ/-—-1b

where a and 6 are real numbers. In this respect they are like other
physical objects which appear in quantum theory. There have been
cases in physics before where the complex numbers were used as a
convenient device, but here they come in an essential way.

The additional degrees of complication which appear in the defi-
nition of a spinor correspond to the nature of the physical problem
which it is designed to meet. Ordinary vectors and tensors would be
well enough adapted to tell where an electron is, in what direction it
is going, and what its angular momentum is. But the quantum
theoretic problem states the problem differently. It does not ask di-
rectly what these quantities are but rather, what are the probabilities
that these quantities shall take on preassigned values. To meet this
requirement, it is not the components of the spinors themselves which
are interpreted in terms of physical measurements, but certain com-
binations of these components with their complex conjugates. These
combinations of components of spinors are components of ordinary
tensors and are interpreted as probabilities that the electron will be
in a certain place moving in a certain way.

Let us now repeat the description of a spinor in a few words. A
spinor is a physical object which has components which are com-
plex functions of the coordinates. The number of components is a
power of four. A set of components is fixed only after (1) the coordi-
nate system, (2) the gauge-frame and (3) the spin frame, are fixed.
Whenever (1), (2), or (8) are changed, the components are replaced
by linear combinations of themselves according to definite rules.

Suppose that you have spinors with 16 components with two in-
dices, X4z, and supposing that these spinors satisfy the condition
that |

X AB = X BA; (3)

so that they are antisymmetric. Then the mathematicians will recog-
nize that connected with them there is a quadratic expression

X 12X34 == X 13X 42 =F X 14X93 a OF (4)

Those spinors which satisfy this relation have peculiar properties,
and it is this quadratic relation which puts the spinors into connection
with the fundamental tensor of the relativity theory, because the g’s

290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

that we have in relativity are also the coefficients of a quadratic ex-
pression.

If you are going to describe some particular physical phe-
nomena such as those described by the relativistic theory of the
spinning electron, you must pick out one or more particular spinors
which embody the physical phenomena in question. It turns out in
this special case that you can pick spinors which set up a suitable
relationship between the quadratic equation (4) above and the funda-
mental quadratic form which appears in the relativity theory. The
general theory of spinors is the theory of all possible physical quan-
tities of a certain sort. The theory of the electron is the theory of cer-
tain particular spinors which describe this electron.

BOTANY.—WNew species of Aulacolepis and other grasses.| A. S.
Hircucock, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The genus Aulacolepis was established by Hackel who based it
upon Deyeuxia treutlert Stapf (Miliwm treutlert Kuntze). It is allied to
Agrostis and to Calamagrostis (Sect. Deyeuxia), differing from the
former in the comparatively large firm lemma and from most of the
species in the prolonged rachilla, and from Calamagrostis in the ab-
sence of the long callus hairs and the dorsal awn. Hackel described a
second species, A. japonica, from Japan, and recently a third spe-
cies, A. milioides (Honda) Ohwi, has been described from the same
country. Aniselytron agrostoides Merr., of the Philippines, described
as differing from Avulacolepis chiefly in the obsolete or much re-
duced first glume may also belong to that genus. In the present
paper two species are added to this interesting genus, one from Bor-
neo, the other from Tonkin.

Aulacolepis clemensae Hitche., sp. nov.

Perennis (?); culmi ascendentes, glabri, circa 60 cm. alti; ligula firma,
truncata, 1 mm. longa; laminae planae, 8-15 cm. longae, 5-8 mm. latae;
panicula laxa, 8-18 cm. longa, ramis ascendentibus, 3-5 cm. longis; glumae
inaequales, acuminatae, prima l-nervia, 2 mm. longa, secunda 3-nervia,
2.5 mm. longa; lemma quam glumae firmius, lanceolatum, scaberulum, 3
mm. longum; processus rachillae tenuis, 0.5 mm. longus.

Apparently perennial; culms ascending, glabrous, several-noded, about
60 cm. tall; sheaths glabrous; ligule firm, truncate, 1 mm. long; blades flat,
slightly scaberulous beneath, puberulent on the upper surface, scaberulous
on the margins, narrowed toward the base, acuminate, 8 to 15 cm. long, 5
to 8 mm. wide at the middle; panicle rather loose and lax, short exserted
or inclosed at base in the uppermost sheath, 8-18 cm. long, the axis angled,

1 Received April 17, 1934.

JULY 15, 1934 HITCHCOCK: NEW SPECIES OF AULACOLEPIS 291

nearly glabrous, the branches slender, flexuous, scabrous, somewhat distant,
ascending, 3 to 5 cm. long, the branchlets few-flowered; glumes unequal,
acuminate, keeled, slightly scaberulous on the keels, the first 1-nerved, 2
mm. long, the second 3-nerved, 2.5 mm. long; lemma lanceolate, compressed,
firmer than the glumes, scaberulous over the surface, 5-nerved, the lateral
nerves near the margin, the intermediate nerves faint, 3 mm. long, minutely
pubescent at base; palea about as long as the lemma but narrower, acumi-
nate, minutely pubescent, inclosed within the lemma, the two keels com-
pressed together; rachilla prolonged between the keels of the palea as a mi-
nute bristle 0.5 mm. long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,538,647, collected on the
boulder margin of the Masilau River, Mount Kinabalu, British North
Borneo, alt. about 3000 meters, December 26, 1933, by Mrs. M.S. Clemens
(no. 34448).

Aulacolepis petelotii Hitchc., sp. nov.

Perennis (?); culmi caespitosi, erecti, glabri, 25-40 cm. alti; ligula mem-
branacea, 2 mm. longa; laminae erectae, planae, scaberulae, 4-8 cm. longae,
1-3 mm. latae; panicula angusta, laxa, pallida, 6-10 cm. longa; glumae
aequales, compressae, 2mm. longae; lemma circa 2 mm. longum, chartaceo-
membranaceum, lanceolatum, 5-nervium, sub apice minute aristatum, callo
breviter piloso; rachilla ultra florem in stipitem brevissimum nudum pro-
ducta; palea angusta, 1.5 mm. longa; stamina 3, antheris 0.5 mm. longis.

Apparently perennial, culms many in a rather loose tuft, erect, or the
outer ones somewhat geniculate at base, glabrous, about 3-noded, 25-40
em. tall; sheaths glabrous; ligule membranaceous, ovate, dentate or some-
what lacerate, about 2 mm. long; bladés erect or ascending flat, scaberulous
beneath, scaberulous-puberulent on the upper surface, striate-nerved, 4-8
em. long, 1-3 mm. wide; panicles narrow, loose, pale, whitish or greenish,
more or less inclosed in the upper sheaths, 6-10 cm. long, the axis scabrous,
the branches scabrous, slender, naked below, branching, the spikelets
clustered near the ends of the branchlets, the ultimate pedicels 1 mm. long
or less; glumes equal, compressed, narrow, rather abruptly acute, minutely
roughened on and near the keel, about 2 mm. long; lemma slightly longer
and less compressed than the glumes, chartaceo-membranaceous, lanceolate,
5-nerved, the midnerve projecting just below the tip as a very short awn,
the callus short-pilose, the rachilla prolonged behind the palea as a very
minute naked bristle; palea narrow about three-fourths as long as the lem-
ma; stamens 3, the anthers 0.5 mm. long.

Type, in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,538,648, collected along
a road near Chapu, Tonkin, alt. about 1900 meters, August, 1933, by A.
Petelot (no. 4743).

Muhlenbergia lindheimeri Hitchc., sp. nov.

Perennis; culmi erecti, 1-1.5 m. alti, vaginis inferioribus imbricatis com-
pressis; ligula elongata; laminae elongatae, planae, interdum plicatae, 3
mm. latae, scaberulae vel glabrae; panicula angusta, pallida, densiuscula,
erecta, 20-40 cm. longa, ramis appressis 2—5 cm. longis; spiculae 2.5-3 mm.
longae; glumae aequales, acutae vel obtusiusculae, scabro-puberulentae vel
glabriusculae; lemma 2.5-3 mm. longum, glabrum vel obscure pubescens
muticum, raro aristatum, arista 1-3 mm. longa.

292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO.7

Perennial; culms erect, 1 to 1.5 meters tall, the numerous overlapping
lower sheaths keeled; ligule rather thin, elongate, mostly hidden in the
folded base of the blade, blades elongate, firm, flat or usually folded, about
3 mm. wide, scaberulous or glabrous; panicle narrow, pale, somewhat loose,
erect, 20 to 40 em. long, the branches ascending or appressed; spikelets 2.5
to 3 mm. long; glumes equal, acute to rather obtuse, scabrous-puberulent
to nearly smooth; lemma usually a little shorter than the glumes, 3-nerved,
glabrous or obscurely pubescent, awnless or rarely with an awn 1 to 3 mm.
long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 998,949, collected in Texas
in 1847 by F. Lindheimer (no. 725).

Other specimens, all from Texas, are: Berlandier 1870; Carter 19; Lind-
heimer 1255 (Distr. Mo. Bot. Gard.); EH. J. Palmer 10859, 11004; Reverchon
1610; Szlveus 11, 354, 355; Tharp 70, 3076. 3

This species has been confused with the closely related M. fournieriana
Hitche. (Epicampes berlandiert Fourn., not Muhlenbergia berlandiert Trin.)
which is confined to Mexico.

About 1902 there appeared in Queensland, Australia, a species of Phalaris
which gave promise of being a valuable forage grass. About 1907 it was dis-
tributed from the Toowoomba Botanic Gardens, Queensland, and was first
grown in the United States at the California Experiment Station and later
at other stations. Burbank has distributed the grass as Peruvian winter
grass. The species was named by Hackel Phalaris stenoptera. It differs from —
P. tuberosa L. only in having a loosely branching rhizomatous base, the
lower internodes little or not at all swollen (P. tuberosa has a distinctly
tuberous base). Agriculturally it seems sufficiently distinct to warrant recog-
nition as a variety.

Phalaris tuberosa var. stenoptera (Hack.) Hitche.
Phalaris stenoptera Hack. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 5: 333. 1908.

Stipa coronata var. depauperata (Jones) Hitchc.

Stipa parishu var. depauperata Jones, Contr. West. Bot. 14: 11. 1912.
Detroit, Utah, Jones in 1891.

Stipa parish Vasey, Bot. Gaz. 7: 33. 1882. San Bernardino Mts., Parish
Bros. 1079. |

Stipa coronata parishii Hitche. Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 24: 227. 1925.

This change is necessary under the International Rules which require that
the earliest legitimate name in its own category be retained.

Manisuris altissima (Poir) Hitche.

Rottboellia alttssima Poir. Voy. Barb. 2: 105. 1789.

Rottboellia fasciculata Lam. Tabl. Enecyel. 1: 204. 1791.

Hemarthria altissima Stapf & Hubbard, Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1934: 109.
1934.

JULY 15, 1934 BROWN: SUPPOSED FOSSIL MAIZE 293

PALEOBOTANY.—The supposed fossil ear of maize from Cuzco,
Peru.! Rouanp W. Brown, U. S. Geological Survey. (Com-
municated by JoHN B. REESIDE JR.)

Since 1919 the attention of botanists, interested in the origin and
evolution of Indian corn, has from time to time been directed to an
object (Fig. 5) described by the late Dr. F. H. Knowlton? as a fossil
ear of maize. Reference to several papers’ in which the object is fur-
ther photographed, described, and compared with varieties of maize,
shows that the designation of it as a fossil by Knowlton has at least
been tentatively accepted as true. It is my purpose now to produce
conclusive evidence that this object is not a fossil, and thus I hope to
correct as gently and as far as possible an unfortunate paleontologic
mistake.

The known historical facts about this object are meager. It was
obtained in 1914 by Dr. W. F. Parks, of St. Louis, Mo., from a curio
dealer in Cuzco, Peru. Dr. Parks transmitted it to Dr. Walter Hough,
Curator of Ethnology in the U. 8. National Museum, who gave it to
Dr. Knowlton for identification. Knowlton passed it around among
his botanical friends, from one of whom, G. N. Collins, of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, he received the helpful suggestion that
externally it had a striking resemblance to a variety of Peruvian
maize. Knowlton thereupon described the specimen as a supposed
new fossil species of maize, calling it Zea antiqua, not because he
could distinguish it from the living variety it resembled, but for the
sake of independent reference.

That Knowlton unreservedly regarded this object as a fossil is
implied in his statement concerning its age. He says: “‘It is of course
extremely unfortunate that nothing is known as to the condition
under which this specimen was found. If this were known it might be
possible to fix its age with a reasonable degree of certainty. As it
stands, however, there is little but the the fact of its thorough fossiliza-
tion* to base an opinion on, and from this I venture the tentative sug-
gestion that it seems hardly likely to be younger than at least several

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received Feb.
19, 1934.

* KNow ton, F. H. Description of a supposed new fossil species of maize from
Peru. This JouRNAL 9: 134-136. 1919.

3 Cotuins, G. N. A fossil ear of maize. Jour. Heredity 10: 170-172. 1919. An
ear of prehistoric maize that resembles the fossil form, Zea antiqua. Jour. Heredity 14:
61-64. 1923.

Kempton, J. H. Maize, the plant-breeding achievement of the American Indian.
Smithsonian Sci. Ser., 11: 319-349. 1931.

* Italics mine.

294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

5 Ge 7

Figs. 1, 4. Lengthwise sections through middle of specimen shown in Fig. 5.
Walls of cavity in Fig. 4 show tool marks. Fig. 2. Pellets found in cavity at base of
specimen. Fig. 3. Transverse section, a top view of specimen shown in Fig. 4. Fig.
5. The supposed fossil ear of maize before cutting. Fig. 6. Ear-of maize from a pre-
Inca grave at Arica, on the coast of Chile. Found in 1913. Fig. 7. Ear of maize grown
by Peruvian Indians in 1925. All figures natural size. Figures 5, 6, 7, by courtesy
of J. H. Kempton, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

thousand years.’ It is most regrettable that Knowlton did not have
the object cut, so that he could determine its petrographic nature.
That he did not have it cut seems inexplicable, except on the hypothe-
sis that he considered the specimen as the only one of its kind known
and therefore hesitated to damage it by sectioning.

JULY 15, 1934 BROWN: SUPPOSED FOSSIL MAIZE 295

The first fermentation past, this matter aged quietly while the
type specimen reposed in the paleobotanical collections of the Na-
tional Museum. Interest in the supposed fossil, however, was revived
recently when Dr. R. F. Griggs, Professor of Botany at George Wash-
ington University, and one of his students, F. 8. MacNeil, of the U.S.
Geological Survey, inquired about it. Suspecting from the time I first
saw it in 1929 that this object was not a real fossil, I now determined
to test my suspicions by having the specimen sectioned. My assistant,
K. J. Murata, cut a transverse section (Fig. 3) near the top, a radial
lengthwise section (Figs. 1, 4), and prepared a thin section for micro-
scopic examination. These sections show conclusively that the object,
instead of being a fossil, is a very cleverly hand-made, low-fired, clay
copy of an ear of Peruvian maize, comparable perhaps to the ears
shown in Figures 6 and 7.

Looking at the fresh faces made by the cuts one finds these char-
acters: The color is a dull, dirty brown, tinged with red. The matrix
can be scratched easily with a knife. To the naked eye it appears
homogeneous, except for scattered light-colored grains of quartz and
limestone. On the transverse section the supposed cob showing the
insertion of the separate kernels is clearly defined. The cob is round-
angular, with a smooth margin between the kernels. This fact would
be sufficient in itself to discredit the object as a fossil, for if it were a
fossil the surface of the cob would be rough, showing contiguous shal-
low pits or scars where the kernels were attached. The shape, inner
surface, and angle of attachment of these kernels suggest that the
kernels were separately fashioned. They are of the same material
as the core.

The most striking feature on the radial lengthwise faces is the coni-
cal cavity near the base. The walls in the upper portion of the cavity
show a few deep, oblique indentations, which are clearly the marks
of a blunt-edged tool used in shaping the cavity. Three small, smooth,
oval pellets (Fig. 2) that before the sectioning caused a faint rattle
when the specimen was shaken, were found in the cavity. The signifi-
cance of the cavity, the pellets, and the rattle, is as conjectural as that
of the specimen itself; but other objects with rattles are said to be not
uncommon among the artifacts of Central American and South
American Indians.

Knowlton observed the fact that the matrix lacks the delicate cellu-
lar structure displayed, for example, by many petrified woods. He,
however, did not state his theory as to how the object became fossil-
ized but said that the matrix is ‘‘a closely cemented, fine-grained

296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

siliceous sand.’’ Actually, microscopic examination of the thin sec-
tion by Dr. C. 8. Ross, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, and Miss
Anna Shepard, of the Laboratory of Anthropology, Santa Fe, N.
Mex., showed that the matrix is a partially baked clay containing a
small amount of coarse-grained material. The latter includes free
quartz grains, a little feldspar, hornblende, mica, garnet, and zircon,
a considerable amount of fine-grained, iron-stained sandstone, lime-
stone, and calcite, and a few fragments of what apparently are re-
worked bits of clay previously used for pottery. The object was baked
at only a moderate temperature, as is demonstrated by the fact that,
although the clay has lost its plasticity, the carbon dioxide has not
been driven from the limestone and calcite.

I had hoped that a minute examination of this object would show
the personal signature of its maker, but I am not convinced that
the obscure and delicate striations present in a few spots actually
are baked fingerprints. Nevertheless, the object is so clever a copy
of an original ear of Peruvian maize that the maker must be credited
with having been an artist of superior skill. The questions as to who
made this object and when, where, and why it was made must now
be referred to the ethnologists and archeologists. The answers may
throw some light on the interesting problems concerning the origin
and early cultivation of maize.

This episode of a supposed ear of fossil maize may be closed fit-
tingly with the pointing of a moral, particularly pertinent to paleon-
tologists: Be not deceived by external appearances.

ZOOLOGY.—A ffinities of the Brachyuran fauna of the Gulf of Cali-
forma.! StEvE A. GLASsELL, San Diego Society of Natural
History. (Communicated by WaLpo L. ScHMITT.)

The author having obtained numerous specimens of Brachyura |
from the Gulf of California during two collecting trips, and having
studied the results of other collectors in that region, believes that a
brief summary of the fauna of that region in comparison with that of
the regions to the north and south would be of general interest to
carcinologists.

The interesting relationship of the Panamian fauna to that of the
Gulf of Mexico need not be considered here since this has been dis-
cussed by Walter Faxon,? but the distribution of tropical (Panamian)

1 Received December 26, 1933.
2 Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard College, 18: 231—50. 1895.

JULY 15, 1934 GLASSELL: BRACHYURAN FAUNA 297

Brachyura in the Gulf of California has not been heretofore studied to
any extent, and it seems probable that an infusion of southern forms
into the Gulf of California has had much to do in making up the
character of the rich fauna which is now known to exist in the latter
region.

In general it is in the Gulf of California that the tropical species
make their most northerly advance on the Pacific coast of North
America, although of course some few species have their most north-
ern limits far north of the Gulf. For these northern species it may be
difficult to determine whether they originated in northern or southern
latitudes. Even a study of their Bathymetric zones does not clarify
the situation. To cite a single instance. Pinnixa affinis Rathbun was
dredged in the Bay of Panama by the Albatross in 26 fathoms, March
30, 1888. On October 20, 1933, a specimen was dredged off Newport
Bay, California, in 20 fathoms. The inference must be that there is a
connecting link between these wide flung stations, that this little crab
must be included in the fauna of the Gulf of California, because the
Gulf is bracketed between the discovery station and this latest find.
Yet to which fauna shall it be allocated? At present this is a matter
of personal opinion.

Arbitrary boundaries are taken so as to form a base on which to
work. This will exclude some tropical and northern forms from this
fauna, which will no doubt be included in the light of future research.
I take as the boundaries, for purposes of this paper, those which ad-
mit of fewer occasional or accidental intrusions of species into the
area bounded by, and including the waters impounded to the north
of a line drawn from Cabo San Lucas, in Lower California, to the
Port of Mazatlan, in the State of Sinaloa, Mexico, and also the fauna
reported and found on the West Coast of Lower California, at Mag-
dalena Bay. In this delimitation of range no attempt is being made
to establish or admit of faunal barriers.

Also we will only consider species of Brachyuran Crustacea of the
three major groups, namely, the Cancroid or Cyclometopous crabs,
the Grapsoid or Catometopous crabs, and the Spider crabs or Oxy-
rhyncha. The total number of species of the three groups, found
within these boundaries is 197, a very large list when we consider that
we are dealing with just a part of the marine decapods. For example
Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt? lists only 181 marine decapods as known to
occur within the 100 fathom line off the coast of California.

* The Marine Decapod Crustacea of California. Univ. of Calif., vol. 23: 281. 1921.

298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

A summary of the total number of species of the three groups is as follows:

Cancroid crabs reported in the Gulf of California, 77 species.

Grapsoid “ “ “ “ “ “ “ 54 “

Spider 6 6 (GB (Hs “ & & 66 6
Total of all species reported 197

The intrusion of Panamian species into the Gulf of California,
number 96 or 48 per cent of all the species reported in these writers.
They are divided as follows:

Cancroid: crabs etek ee 39 species, or 50+ per cent

Grapso1esay oS DRUM ate SRT clon Diy anes (AGE te cmene

Spider ge ies Sieben ae int ety Ghee BAA te Ste 6G
Total of three groups 96 species, or 48-++ per cent

The above percentages represent the percent which the Panamian
species bear to the total number of species in each family group.
Further intensive study and collecting will no doubt show that the
Anomuran tribe and the remaining families of the Brachyuran tribe
will bear a like relationship to the Panamian fauna.

Another interesting summation is a table showing the number and
percentages of species that are indigenous to the Gulf of California.

Cancroid: Chabseei sor. i Go eae 27 species, or 35+ per cent
Grapsoid,: So oe cnet tr. eee De 4 AL es
Spider See? Sein ape SA cade a a 20.2% ©" 39 - ae

Total of three groups 75 species, or 40—per cent of all

Then the insignificant influence that northern species play in the
Gulf of California fauna, may be visualized by a glance at the follow-
ing table.

Northern intrusion of species in the Gulf of California.

Cancroid crabs, northern species...... 11 or 14+ per cent
Grapsoid “ 7 eed fen tre Be Oats 5 See
Spider ¢ é fs ee SRD Seal Qe eee

Total of three groups 24 or 12+ per cent of all

A recapitulation of the foregoing tables, based on a total for the
three groups of 195 definitely allocated species, (two of the 197 species
are doubtful in this locality), is as follows:

Panamian species in the Gulf, total 96 species, or 48+ per cent

JULY 15, 1934 GLASSELL: BRACHYURAN FAUNA 299

Indigenous species in the Gulf, total 75 species, or 40— per cent
Northern “ “ %4 %3 % 24 “ “ 1 + %4 “

There have been three expeditions in the Gulf of California which
have added materially to our knowledge of the fauna of that region.
They were, the two Albatross expeditions of 1891 and 1911, and the
expedition of the California Academy of Sciences in 1921. As before
stated it was my good fortune to collect in this territory during part
of the years 1931-32-33. A partial summary of the results of this col-
lecting, confined to the three before mentioned groups is:

Cancroid crabs, total of species. ...47 or 61+ per cent of species

Grapsoid “ “ “ “ im 32 “ 60+ “ “ “ “

Spider «“ (Ge a Get « ge ee To 50+ “ GG «“
Total of species taken — 112 or 56+ per cent

Many new locality records were obtained, extending the range of
some species more than 25° of Latitude to the north. In the list of
species to follow no extension of range is indicated if the distance is
less than 100 miles, nor is extension of range given to that species un-
less specimens were collected at new localities. In all 46 new locality
records are recorded, 18 of these are introductions to the fauna of the
Gulf.

As a great deal of the information in this paper is of necessity a
compilation, I wish to express my deep appreciation to Dr. Mary J.
Rathbun of the United States National Museum, not only for her
monographs but also for her personal attention to my efforts.

To facilitate reference to the list of species reported from the Gulf
of California, these symbols are used after the name of the author of
the species.

A Indicates Panamian species

B . Northern species, those found on west coast of North
America, north of Magdalena Bay, Lower California.

C e Indigenous species
D : Apparently indigenous species extending their range a
short way either north or south of Cape St. Lucas.
E i Species collected by the author.
F New locality records of this collection.
(?) _ Tentative identification
Spider Crabs Podochela hemphillii (Lockington) B E
MAJIDAE Podochela latimanus (Rathbun) C E
Stenorynchus debilis (Smith) A E Inachoides laevis Stimpson A E F
Podochela vestita (Stimpson) C E Erileptus spinosus Rathbun B E F

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

Eucinetops lucasii Stimpson C

Eucinetops rubella Rathbun C E

Eucinetops panamensis Rathbun A E

Euprognatha bifida Rathbun B E

Collodes granosus Stimpson C

Collodes tenuirostris Rathbun C D

Collodes tumidus Rathbun C D

Batrachonotus nicholsi Rathbun C D

Pyromaia tuberculata (Lockington)
ABE

Dasygyius depressus (Bell) A E

Acanthonyx petiverii Milne Edwards
AE

Kpialtus sulcirostris Stimpson C D

Epialtus minimus Lockington C E

Kupleurodon trifurcatus Stimpson C

Taliepus nuttallii (Randall) B

Pugettia venetiae Rathbun B

Mimulus foliatus Stimpson B

Leucippa pentagona Milne Edwards A

Sphenocarcinus agassizi Rathbun A

Pelia tumida (Lockington) B C

Notolopas lamellatus Stimpson A E F

Herbstia camptacantha (Stimpson) C D

' Herbstia parvifrons (Randall) B E

Herbstia tumida (Stimpson) C D

Libinia setosa Lockington C E

Libinia mexicana Rathbun C E

Lissa aurivilliusi Rathbun A

Lissa tuberosa Rathbun C

Hemus analogus Rathbun C EK

Thoe sulcata Stimpson C D E

Pitho picteti (Saussure) A E

Pitho sexdentata Bell A E

Anoptychus cornutus Stimpson A E

Mithrax (Mithrax) spinipes Bell A E

Mithrax (Mithrax) orcutti Rathbun A

Mithrax (Mithrax) armatus Saussure C

Mithrax (Mithrax) tuberculatus Stimp-
son A

Mithrax (Mithrax) sinensis Rathbun C

Mithrax (Mithrax) sonorensis Rathbun
CE

Mithrax (Mithraculus) denticulatus
Bell A E

Mithrax (Mithraculus) areolatus (Lock-
ington) AB

Teleophrys cristulipes Stimpson A

Stenocionops contigua Rathbun C E

Stenocionops macdonaldi (Rathbun) A

Stenocionops triangulata (Rathbun) A

Macrocoeloma heptacanthum (Bell) A

Macrocoeloma villosum (Bell) A

Microphrys platysoma (Stimpson) A E

Microphrys branchialis Rathbun C D E

Microphrys triangulatus (Lockington)
AE

PARENTHOPIDAE

Parenthope (Parthenope) hyponca
(Stimpson) A

Parthenope (Platylambrus) exilipes

(Rathbun) A
Parthenope (Pseudolambrus) triangu-
lata (Stimpson) C
Thyrolambrus erosus Rathbun C
Leiolambrus punctatissimus (Owen) A
Tyche lamellifrons Bell A E
Mesorhoea bellii (A. Milne Edwards)
AE
Aethra scruposa scutata Smith A E
Cryptopodia hassleri Rathbun C E
Heterocrypta macrobrachia Stimp-
son AEF

Cancroid Crabs

PORTUNIDAE

Portunus (Portunus) xantusii (Stimp-
son) BE

Portunus (Portunus) asper (A. Milne
Edwards) A

Portunus (Portunus) panamensis (Stimp-
son) A

Portunus (Achelous) brevimanus (Fax-
on) A

Portunus (Achelous) minimus Rathbun
CE .

Portunus (Achelous) pichilinquei Rath-
bun C E

Portunus (Achelous) affinis (Faxon) A

Portunus (Achelous) tuberculatus
(Stimpson) A

Portunus (Portunus) iridescens (Rath-
bun) C

Callinectes bellicosus Stimpson C D E

Callinectes ochoterenai Contreras C

Callinectes arcuatus Ordway A E

Callinectes toxotes Ordway A

Arenaeus mexicanus (Gerstaecker) A E

Cronius ruber (Lamarck) A E

Euphylax robustus A. Milne Ed-
wards C

ATELECYCLIDAE

Pliosoma parvifrons Stimpson C

JULY 15, 1934

CANCRIDAE

Cancer amphioetus Rathbun B
Cancer anthonyi Rathbun B
Cancer gracilis Dana B

XANTHIDAE

Carpilodes cinctimanus (White) A E F

Platypodia rotundata (Stimpson) A E F

Actea sulcata Stimpson A E F

Glyptoxanthus meandricus (Locking-
ton) CE F

Daira americana Stimpson A E F

Lipaestheius leeanus Rathbun A E

Medaeus lobipes Rathbun A

Medaeus spinulifer (Rathbun) A

Cycloxanthops vittatus (Stimpson) A ~

Cycloxanthops novemdentatus (Lock-
ington) BE F

Leptodius occidentalis (Stimpson) A E

Xanthodius sternberghi Stimpson A

Xanthodius hebes Stimpson C E F

Xanthodius stimpsoni (A. Milne Ed-
wards) AEF

Lophoxanthus lamellipes (Stimpson)
AEF

Metopocarcinus truncatus Stimpson A

Lophopanopeus heathii Rathbun B

Lophopanopeus frontalis (Rathbun)
BEF

Lophopanopeus lockingtoni Rathbun
BE

Lophopanopeus maculatus Rathbun CE

Panopeus purpureus Lockington A

Panopeus chilensis Milne Edwards and
Lucas A

Panopeus bermudensis Benedict and
Rathbun A E F

Panopeus diversus Rathbun C E

Neopanope peterseni Glassell C E

Hexapanopeus orcutti Rathbun O E F

Hexapanopeus sinaloensis Rathbun
CEF

Hexapanopeus rubicundus Rathbun
CE

EKurypanopeus ovatus (Benedict &
Rathbun) C E F

Kurypanopeus planus (Smith) A

EKurypanopeus planissimus (Stimpson)

CEF

Kurypanopeus confragosus Rathbun
CE

Eurytium affine (Streets & Kingsley)
CE

GLASSELL: BRACHYURAN FAUNA 301

EKurytium albidigitum Rathbun C E
Micropanope latimanus Stimpson B
Micropanope xantusii (Stimpson) A E F
Micropanope polita Rathbun A E
Micropanope areolata Rathbun B E
Paraxanthias insculptus (Stimpson) A
Pilumnus xantusii Stimpson C
Pilumnus spinohirsutus (Lockington)
BE
Pilumnus townsendi Rathbun C E
Pilumnus conzalensis Rathbun C E
Pilumnus depressus Stimpson C
Pilumnus pygmaeus Boone A E F (?)
Pilumnus limosus Smith A E F
Pilumnus stimpsoni Miers C
Pilumnus tectus Rathbun C E
Heteractaea lunata (Milne Edwards &
Lucas) A E F
Acidops fimbriatus Stimpson A E F
Ozius verreauxii Saussure A
Ozius perlatus Stimpson A E
Ozius agassizii A. Milne Edwards A E F
Eriphia squamata Stimpson A E F
Quadrella nitida Smith A
Trapezia digitalis Latreille A

Grapsoid Crabs

GONEPLACIDAE

Trizocarcinus dentatus (Rathbun) C

Euryplax polita Smith A E F

Speocarcinus granulimanus Rathbun
CE

Speocarcinus californiensis (Locking-
ton) BEF

Oediplax granulata Rathbun C

Glyptoplax pugnax Smith A E F

Chasmocarcinus latipes Rathbun C

PINNOTHERIDAE

Pinnotheres angelicus Lockington C
EF

Pinnotheres lithodomi Smith A E F

Pinnotheres muliniarum Rathbun C

Pinnotheres goncharum (Rathbun) B
EF

Pinnotheres pubescens (Holmes) C E

Pinnotheres margarita Smith A

Pinnotheres reticulatus Rathbun C

Pinnotheres jamesi Rathbun C

Pinnotheres pichilinquei Rathbun C

Fabia granti Glassell C E

Parapinnixa nitida (Lockington) C E F

302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

Dissodactylus nitidus Smith A E F

Pinnixa transversalis (Milne Edwards
& Lucas) A EK F

Pinnixa tomentosa Lockington B E F

Pinnixa occidentalis Rathbun B

Pinnixa affinis Rathbun A

Tetrias scabripes Rathbun C

CYMOPOLIIDAE

Cymopolia zonata Rathbun C E F
Cymopolia lucasii (Rathbun) C
Cymopolia fragilis Rathbun A

GRAPSIDAE

Grapsus grapsus (Linnaeus) A E F
Geograpsus lividus (Milne Edwards)
AEF
Goniopsis pulchra (Lockington) A E
Pachygrapsus crassipes Randall A B E
Pachygrapsus transversus (Gibbes) A E
Planes minutus (Linnaeus) A B E
Planes marinus Rathbun B
Goetice americanus Rathbun C E F
Tetragrapsus Jouyi (Rathbun) C E F
Sesarma (Sesarma) suleatum Smith A
EF

Cyclograpsus escondidensis Rathbun
CE |

Plagusia
marck A

Perenon gibbesi (Milne Edwards) A E
F

depressa tuberculata La-

GECARCINIDAE

Cardisoma crassum Smith A;
Ucides occidentalis (Ortmann) A
Gecarcinus planatus Stimpson A E

OCYPODIDAE

Ocypode occidentalis Stimpson A E F

Uca monilifera Rathbun C E

Uca princeps (Smith) A

Uca mordax (Smith) A E F

Uca brevifrons (Stimpson) A

Uca macrodactylus (Milne Edwards &
Lucas) A

Uca crenulata (Lockington) B D E

Uca coloradensis (Rathbun) C E

Uca musica Rathbun C E F

Uca latimanus (Rathbun) A E

ZOOLOGY.—The morphology and development of the preparasitic
larvae of Poteriostomum ratzil.! JoHn T. LuckErR, Bureau of
Animal Industry. (Communicated by BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ. )

INTRODUCTION

The preparasitic larvae of the numerous species of small strongyles
(Strongylidae of genera other than Strongylus) parasitic in the large
intestine of horses have not been described, except in the case of
Triodontophorus tenuicollis. The literature relating to this group
of nematodes contains a number of publications dealing with the
structure and development of their free-living larvae, but the avail-
able information is without reference to species, with the one excep-
tion noted above. The following is a brief summary of the literature
pertaining to the preparasitic development of the small strongyles
of horses. |

In 1866, Baillet (3) published observations on the preparasitic de-
velopment of Sclerostoma tetracanthum Diesing, 1851. As is well

1 Received March 2, 1934.

JULY 15, 1934 LUCKER: LARVAE POTERIOSTOMUM RATZII 303

known, S. fetracanthum (Synonyms: Strongylus tetracanthus Mebhlis,
1831; Cyathostomum tetracanthum Molin, 1861) was shown by Looss
(9) in 1901 to be a composite of at least 13 distinct species. Subse-
quently the species which comprised the S. tetracanthum complex have
been found to represent several distinct genera. Giles (6), Albrecht
(1), Theiler (15), De Blieck (4), De Blieck and Baudet (5) and Polus-
zynski (11) have reported investigations on the preparasitic develop-
ment of specifically unidentified cylicostomes. The morphological data
in the above papers are incomplete; even Ortlepp’s (10) description
of the infective larva of Triodontophorus tenuicollis is not as detailed
as is necessary for the differential diagnosis of the larvae in question.
Larval development in the genus Poteriostomum apparently has not
_ been previously studied. ,

The worms from which cultures were made were removed from the
colons of two horses at post-mortem examination. Only a few females
and one male of the genus Poteriostomum were found in the first horse,
and three females and one male were recovered from the second
horse. The females were washed first in physiological saline solution
and subsequently in water. The eggs, removed by dissection of the
living worms, were cultured in small glass dishes containing tap water.
One culture contained the eggs from two females, and each of 4 cul-
tures contained the eggs taken from a single female. The account of
the larval development presented in this paper is based upon data
obtained from all 5 cultures. ‘After the eggs had been removed from
the female worms each of the latter was fixed separately and cleared
later for microscopic examination.

SPECIFIC IDENTITY OF THE ADULT WORMS

All of the female worms, from which eggs were removed for culture,
and the two male specimens mentioned above, have been identified
by the writer as Poteriostomum ratzii Kotlan, 1919, and have been de-
posited as No. 31026 in the U.S. National Museum Helminthological
Collection. In view of the fact that the descriptions and figures relat-
ing to this species published by Yorke and Macfie (17), Ihle (7),
Theiler (15), Smit (13), Smit and Notosoediro (14) and Wetzel (16)
are in disagreement in regard to a number of morphological details,
and in no case conform in all respects to the original description given
by Kotlan (8), the following brief comments as to certain morphologi-
cal features of the writer’s specimens are in order. There are from 64
to 84 elements in the external leaf crown (Kotldn reported from 60

Fey,

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Figs. 1-12.—Poteriostomum ratzti. Preparasitic larval stages.

Fig. 1.—First-stage larva, newly hatched. Fig. 2.—First-stage larva, anterior
end. Fig. 3—Second-stage larva. Fig. 4——Second-stage larva, anterior end. Fig.
5.—Second-stage larva, anterior end, during late phase of development. Fig. 6.—
Late second-stage larva, posterior end. Fig. 7.—Infective (third-stage) larva. Fig.
8.—Third-stage larva, anterior end. External edge of sheath inadvertently omitted.
Fig. 9.—Third-stage larva, region of nerve ring. Fig. 10.—Third-stage larva, posterior
portion. Fig. 11.—Third-stage larva, genita primordium. Fig. 12.—First-stage larva
in first ecdysis.

JULY 15, 1934 LUCKER: LARVAE POTERIOSTOMUM RATZII 305

to 64 elements; Smit noted 44 elements; Wetzel reported from 44 to
46 elements; Ihle counted 98 elements in one specimen). The internal
leaf crown contains from 38 to 48 elements (Kotlan reported from 40
to 44 elements; Ihle counted 48 elements in one case; Wetzel reported
from 34 to 38 elements; Smit noted 30 elements). The structure of the
4 submedian and 2 lateral papillae corresponds to the descriptions
of Ihle and Wetzel and to the figure of Yorke and Macfie. In respect
to the shape of the walls of the mouth capsule, the specimens agree
closely with the figure of Yorke and Macfie and with the description
given by Wetzel. The dorsal ray pattern is similar to that figured by
Smit and by Smit and Notosoediro, except that the lateral dorsal
rays are even more widely separated from one another than noted by
the above mentioned workers.

P. ratzw var. nanum of Theiler, which has been redescribed as a
sub-species by Popov (12), has been differentiated from P. ratzi
principally because the postero-lateral rays in the former are without
an ‘‘accessory’’ process near their base. A definite small posterior
cuticular swelling or process is present on these rays in the males col-
lected by the writer.

DESCRIPTION OF THE EGG, PRE-INFECTIVE
AND INFECTIVE LARVAE

Egg

Usually elliptical in shape, but may be slightly narrower at one pole than
at the other. Shell thin and transparent. Measurements of a comparatively
small number of eggs showed a wide variation in size, namely from 90u to
125u in length and from 57y to 70u in width. Eggs present in the uterus near
the vagina were in the 16- or 32-cell stage. When fully developed the vermi-
form embryo has the structure of the first-stage larva described below.

First-stage larva

Shape and size.—F usiform; similar in appearance to rhabditiform larvae
of related strongyles, a long filamentous tail comprising about 144 to 4
of the body length (Fig. 1). Newly hatched larvae from 450u to 470u long;
larvae at time of first molt, 600u to 620u long.

Cuticle—Thin, with very inconspicuous transverse striations.

Alimentary tract—Mouth opening surrounded by minute papillae, ap-
parently 6 in number. In the rhabditiform buccal cavity, cheilorhabdions
and telorhabdions, (Fig. 2) represented by definite refractive cuticular dots;
prorhabdions and metarhabdions discernible as short refractive cuticular
rods, refractive dots appearing at their junctures. Esophagus rhabditiform;
esophageal valve prominent. Esophagus and intestine united by primordium
of esophago-intestinal valve; valve consisting of 4 cells and with a short,
narrow, straight lumen. Intestinal lumen dilated and sinuous in living

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

specimens, expanded terminally both anteriorly and posteriorly. In living
specimens the intestine dark and granular, consisting apparently of 16 cells.
Lumen of rectum narrow, leading to a conspicuous anus. Rectal glands
dorsal and subventral to rectum.

Nervous system.—Nerve ring surrounding isthmus of esophagus. Num-
erous nerve cells situated lateral and ventral to esophagus both anterior
and posterior to nerve ring.

Excretory system.—Excretory pore and excretory canal not seen.

Genital primordium.—Primordium minute, oval, transparent, containing
2 germinal cells, situated ventral to and at approximate equator of intestine.
In some specimens, genital primordium in close apposition to a smaller,
more anterior, oval or spade-shaped cell, presumably the ‘‘giant cell’? men-
tioned by Alicata (2) as of significance in sex differentiation in larvae of
Hyostrongylus rubidus.

The size relationships of 10 first-stage larvae are given below in Table 1.

TABLE 1.—SizE RELATIONSHIPS OF 10 FIRST-STAGE LARVAE OF POTERIOSTOMUM
ALL MEASUREMENTS IN MICRONS

Specimenemumalloers te ey ae eee 1) 2.| 3) 4°) So Gal Wao Om iene
STIS Gh See ee ocean tere ren ee ete 620|554|535|516/474)|456/470/583|/576/485
Width in region of esophageal bulb........ 30) 32) 35) 28] 26] 25) 27) 29) 27) 25
Heng throtbuccalicapsulenc. 92.0 ee eee 17) 15) 16} 13) 13) 12} 12) 14) 14) 14
Distance from anterior end to nervering....|| 102) 98/105) 90} 80; 70) 70) 94| 91) 82
enethyot-esophacus 2 sacs ae ee ee 130/129)140)115}122)112)116)121)132)120
Distance from bulb of esophagus to genital

PRWMOrCU I? Seg cee tee ae eee ae ae 117/141)109)117|102)105/103)127|119/100
Distance from genital primoridum to anus. .|| 165/104/120)/121/109)118/110)135)122)118
Wemethrot tails 97h wieres ee ae ae ere 190/174)169)153}130)104/127|186)189}131

Second-stage larva

Shape and size.—Similar in shape to first-stage larva; 600u to 850u long,
the latter being the approximate maximum length attained during prepara-
sitic stages (Fig. 3). During early phases of this stage, tail increasing con-
siderably in absolute length and, as a rule, in proportionate length also.
During transition to strongyliform third stage, tissue of tail loosening from
cuticle and contracting to form a short, round-tipped process (Fig. 6).

Cuticle—Thick and very prominently striated; great thickening occuring
in tail region during the later phases of this stage. ,

Alimentary tract.—In young larvae of this stage, alimentary canal similar
to that of first-stage larva. During transition to strongyliform stage the
following changes occur: Prorhabdions of buccal capsule at first curving
toward each other anteriorly (Fig. 4), later uniting (Fig. 5) to form an in-
verted V, other portions of the buccal capsule becoming reduced; esophagus
lengthening slightly, losing its rhabditiform character and assuming a
strongyliform structure; meanwhile esophageal valve disappearing, and
primordium of esophago-intestinal valve becoming syncytial; boundaries of
intestinal cells becoming more distinct, posterior 2 cells being set off by a
constriction as a pre-rectum. Anus appearing somewhat less conspicuous
than in first-stage larva.

Nervous system.—Similar to that of the first-stage larva, but nerve cells
more prominent.

JULY 15, 19834 LUCKER: LARVAE POTERIOSTOMUM RATZII 307

Excretory system.—Excretory pore and excretory duct clearly visible
anterior and ventral to esophageal bulb and just posterior to nerve ring.

Genital promordium.—Similar to that of first-stage larva, but slightly
larger and containing a greater number of epithelial cells.

The size relationships of 7 second-stage larvae are shown below in Table 2

TABLE 2.—Si1zE RELATIONSHIPS OF 7 SECOND-STAGE LARVAE OF P. RATZII
ALL MEASUREMENTS IN MICRONS

SEPM MUMIDEL 5 6! 5!) oj cna See a 6 oes 1 2 3 4 5 6 ci
7. ELSE | SoS aaa a 654 | 830 | 640 | 631 | 790 | 629 | 668
Width in region of esophageal bulb...... 26 37 We. 29 35 Ze 28
mene or buccal cavity. 22... 2 suas. 32: 14 19 16 7 19 14 14
Distance from anterior end to nerve ring.| 101 | 110 | 106 93 82 82 90
Distance from anterior end to excretory

PAPUA ec LST. EM so er ce wd 2 a Mons EZ etek ae ahaa tedial pe lelids ak oO 93 | 100
MenerUnaOl ESOPNAPUS = 2302 Gee ws el 138 Pb4d [l34 | 1394 1415 | 115 | 135
Distance from bulb of esophagus to Ei

HABA OTUCUIM ac. . Sass Sa ee ea wae ww 8 140 | 165 | 143 | 102 | 159 | 112 | 150
Distance from genital primoridum to anus | 138 | 225 | 136 | 145 | 163 | 148 | 169
RE IE SE MUS ARE ATS es fogs eee cmc. baad ee eee 222 | 279 | 211 | 228 | 310 | 240 | 200

Third-stage larva

Shape and size.—Fusiform; tail short, slightly tapering, rather suddenly
constricted near its distal end and terminating in a minute, rounded, thumb-
like process. Larva from 443u to 584u long in 10 specimens. Average width
in esophago-intestinal region, about 29u.

Cuticle—Thinner than that of second-stage larva and finely striated.

Sheath.—Very thick, with wide, prominent, transverse striae. Two median
longitudinal prominences extending along lateral surfaces of sheath; these
probably represent lateral alae; sheath conforming closely to shape of larva,
but extending posteriorly from 200u to 255u beyond posterior tip of larva
as a fine tapering cuticular tube or tail; sheath rather sharply constricted
just posterior to region normally occupied by larval tail when larva is fully
extended. At point of constriction, walls of sheath greatly thickened (Figs.
7, 10) for a short distance, enclosing a very narrow lumen; walls becoming
thinner again immediately posteriorly, the narrow lumen mentioned above
being very short and followed by a more expanded lumen becoming increas-
ingly narrow as walls converge posteriorly to form tapering distal portion
of sheath’s tail.

Alimentary tract—Oral opening surrounded by papillae and followed by
a short, narrow, slightly cuticularized tube or canal leading into a minute
oval cavity; this cavity communicating with a vestibule by means of a short
canal. Vestibule variable in size, but conforming in optical section to the
following general plan of structure: Anterior margin of vestibule formed by
an inconspicuosly cuticularized inverted V, apparently a residue of previous
stage prorhabdions; lateral walls cuticular, rather strongly refractive, prob-
ably the residuum of metarhabdions of previous stage, converging posterior-
ly to unite with esophageal lumen; greater part of vestibulum surrounded
by esophageal tissue (Fig. 8). Esophagus strongyliform; its lumen highly
refractive. Frequently 2 prominent nuclei visible within bulb of esophagus,

308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

presumably being nuclei of esophageal glands. Esophagus leading to a
16-celled intestine; boundaries of intestinal cells definite in young third-
stage larvae, but becoming indistinct with exhaustion of reserve food ma-
terial. Lumen of rectum narrow, leading to an inconspicuous anus.

Nervous system.—Nerve ring slightly posterior to equator of esophagus.
In fixed and stained specimens the following details of the nervous system
were observed (Fig. 9): 6 narrow chains of nerve cells passing anteriorly
from nerve ring about one half distance to cephalic end; nerve fibres not
traced from this point anteriorly. A small ganglion posterior and dorsal
to nerve ring, laterally a large ganglion passing posteriorly along each side
of esophagus and extending nearly to bulb. A ventral ganglion of somewhat
smaller size also visible. A chain of nerve cells extending posteriorly from
retrovesicular ganglion toward 2 large median ganglia in caudal region.
Caudal papillae or phasmids (Fig. 10) about 15u to 18u from tip of tail,
connecting with tubes or canals passing internally and anteriorly from
phasmids. The further course of these canals could not be traced owing to
the large number of nerve cells present in this region.

Excretory system.—Excretory pore slightly posterior to nerve ring. Ex-
cretory canal or duct passing inward and posteriorly from excretory pore
to join a transverse excretory duct. A cross section of lumen of transverse
duct visible in optical section of living specimen. Walls of transverse duct
contracting and expanding at irregular intervals.

Genital primordium.—Gross appearance similar to that of preceding
stages, its position being ventral to the fourth and fifth ventral intestinal
cells. The two large germinal cells rather centrally located and surrounded
by 11 epithelial cells (Fig. 11). In addition to the “giant cell’”’ near genital
primordium, 3 similar cells occuring in body cavity anterior to genital
primordium. | :

The size relationships of 10 third-stage larvae are given below in Table 3.

TABLE 3.—SizeE RELATIONSHIPS OF 10 THIRD-STAGE LARVAE OF P. RATZII
ALL MEASUREMENTS IN MICRONS

Specimenmumibers. aan ee ee ee 1) 2:13) ) 451 5) 6 aes le Oa elo

Length of sheath eee cree ce 737|845|649|706|685|743|712/802)|718)]762
Distance from posterior end of larva to pos-

terior tip of sheath. cere ce eae oe 211/261|206|253|242|232|205/253/211/220
enethoot larvar:.ce eer en ati oe ci 526/584) 443/453/443/511/507|549/507|542

Width of larva in region of esophageal bulb..| 26} 31) 20} 28) 29 24| 30 26
Width of sheath in region of esophageal bulb.| 34) 35} 25) 34) 35 30} 34 34

Distance from anterior end to nerve ring....| 94 77| 91) 90} 99} 96} 98) 96)108
Distance from anterior end to excretory pore. |115 96/110)110)118)115)115)121/120
Ihength of esophagus sc... eo eee 183) 180/162/148/158)180/174)173/180)179
Distance from bulb of esophagus to genital

PRIM ordi. «..5 As F. Aan ee ee eae 141/183)124)142)112/146)120)134)149)172
Distance from genital primordium to anus.. .|166/179)117)|130)142/151)180)205)146)149
Weng thy otstalle. ss: ks owe ee ae eee 36| 40) 32) 30} 34) 34) 34) 38] 31] 42

DEVELOPMENT OF PREPARASITIC LARVAL STAGES

In water cultures at room temperatures (20° to 26° C.), most eggs
contained a vermiform embryo 24 hours after the cultures were pre-

JULY 15, 19384 . LUCKER: LARVAE POTERIOSTOMUM RATZII 309

pared. Some eggs hatched within 22 hours and nearly all of the eggs
hatched within 40 hours. When the first-stage larvae issued from the
eggs, a small amount of helminthologically sterile fecal extract was
added to the culture medium. In one culture, after 67 hours of in-
cubation, larvae were observed in the act of casting off the first cuti-
cle (Fig. 12). While the first molt was not actually observed, in two
other cases a large number of discarded sheaths were found in the
culture dishes examined 72 hours after the cultures were started. In
these two cultures all larvae were still in the first stage after 48
hours. Third-stage larvae were found in some cases as early as 115
hours after the cultures were prepared. The thick cuticle of the
second-stage larva was not cast off, but was retained by the third-
stage larva as a sheath.

SUMMARY

The first-stage larva of P. ratzii hatches from the egg in from 22 to
40 hours when kept in water cultures at room temperature (20° to
26° C.); the larva is rhabditiform, varies in length from 450y to 620uy,
and is provided with a long filamentous tail.

The first molt was observed after about 67 hours in a water culture
to which helminthologically sterile fecal extract had been added
shortly after the first-stage larvae issued from the eggs.

The early second-stage larva is similar to larvae of the preceding
stage except that its cuticle is thick and prominently striated. Shortly
after the first molt, the excretory pore and excretory canal become
clearly visible. Second-stage larvae are from 600y to 850y long.

As development proceeds, the second-stage larva becomes further
differentiated morphologically. Following the formation of a new
cuticle and the attainment of the strongyliform structure, the old
cuticle loosens from the body and the larva enters the ensheathed
third stage. The second cuticle is not cast off.

The third-stage strongyliform larva has a short tail and is from
443u to 585u long. The sheath in which the larva is enclosed is from
650u to 850u long, and is characterized by great thickening of its
walls in the region immediately posterior to that occupied by the tail
of the fully extended larva. A minimum of 115 hours was required for
the development from the uterine egg to the infective larva.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Auprecut, A. Zur Kenntnis der Entwicklung der Sklerostomen beim Pferde.
Ztsch. Veterinark. 21: 161-181. 1909.

310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

15.

16.

AuicaTa, J. E. Sex differentiation in preparasitic larvae of Hyostrongylus ru-
bidus and development of male and female reproductive systems. (Author’s
abstract of paper read before Am. Soc. Par.) Jour. Parasitol. 20: 127. 1933.

BaiuueT, C. ‘“Helminthes.”” Nouv. dict. de méd de chir. et d. hygiene vét.
Paris. 8: 519-687. 1866.

DE Buick, L. Infectie en prophylaxis bij Strongylosis van het paard. Nederl.
Natuur-Geneesk. Congres. 19: 188-193. 1923.

DE Buick, L., and Baupst, HE. A. R. F. Contribution a l’étude du développement
des Strongylidés (Sclérostomes) du gros intestin chez le cheval. Ann. de Para-
sitol. hum. et comp. 4: 87-96. 1926.

Gites, G. M. J. Some observations on the life-history of Sclerostomum tetra-
canthum Diesing, and on sclerostomiasis in equine animals in connection with
so-called outbreak of “‘surra’’ at Shillong. Scient. Mem. Med. Off. India.
Calcutta. Part 7: 1-23. 1892.

Inte, J. KE. W. Report of the Commission appointed to inquire into Sclerostomiasis
in Holland. 1. Zoological part. The adult Strongylids (Sclerostomes) inhabiting
the large intestine of the horse. The Hague. v. 1: 118 pp. 1922.

Kotuan, S. Die im ungarischen vorkommenden Sclerostomiden mit besonderer
Rucksicht auf das genus Cylicostomum. Ko6zl. az 6sszehasonlité életés
kértan kérébol. 15: 81. 1919.

Looss, A. The Sclerostomidae of horses and donkeys in Egypt. Rec. Egypt. Gov.
Sch. of Med. 1: 21-113. 1901.

OrtTLepp, R. J. Observations on the life history of Triodontophorus tenuicollis, a
nematode parasite of the horse. Jour. Helminth. 3: 1-14. 1925.

PouuszyNskI, G. Morphologisch-biologische Untersuchungen ueber die frielebenden
Larven einiger Pferdenstrongyliden. Tierartz. Rundsch. 36: 871-873. 1930.

Popov, N. K tzucheniiu fauny strongylid loshadei S. S. S. R. Statia vtorara
(Part 2). Trudy Gosudarstv. inst. eksper. vet. Moskva. 5: 31-52. 1928.

Smit, H. J. Parasitologische Studien in Niederldndisch Indien. Deutsche
Tierdrtzl. Wehnschr. 32: 480-434. 1924.

Smit, H. J., and Norosorpiro, R. Nog eenige Strongyliden van het Paard op
Java IV. Nederl.-Ind. Blad. u. Diergeneesk. e Dierent. Buitenzorg. 35:
29-36. 1923.

THEILER, G. The Strongylids and other nematodes parasitic in the intestinal tract
of South African equines. 9th and 10th Reports of the Director of Vet. Ed.
and Research. Pretoria. 175 p. 1923.

Werze., R. Strongyliden der Pferde in Deutschland. Nachtrag. Deutsche Tier-
airtzl. Wschnschr. 36: 101-104. 1928.

YorKE, W., and Macrtg, J. W. S. Strongylidae in horses: X.—On the genus Po-
teriostomum Quiel. Ann. Trop. Med. and Parasitol. 14: 159-163. 1920. |

ORNITHOLOGY.—The hawks of the genus Chondrohierax.' HEr-

BERT FRIEDMANN, U.S. National Museum.

The hook-billed kites of the genus Chondrohierax have always

been a source of much confusion to taxonomists because of their
unusual range of variation in color and size and because of their
scarcity in collections. Recently while working over these birds, I

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived March 21, 1934.

JULY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: HAWKS oll

took the opportunity of bringing together by far the most extensive
series of specimens ever assembled and am greatly indebted to the
following institutions and their staffs for the loan of material: The
American Museum of Natural History, New York (Mr. J. T. Zim-
mer); the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge (Mr. J. L.
Peters); The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia (Dr. W.
Stone and Mr. M. A. Carriker); the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh
(Mr. W. E. C. Todd); the University of Michigan Museum, Ann
Arbor (Dr. J. Van Tyne); and the California Institute of Technology
(Mr. A. J. van Rossem). The specimens assembled total 100 in num-
ber; in addition to these Dr. Percy R. Lowe has kindly sent me
measurements and geographical data concerning 10 specimens in the
British Museum.

If we take Peters’ Check List of the Birds of the World (vol. 1:
200. 1931) as a statement of current treatment of the genus, we find
three species with no races: wncinatus, megarhynchus, and wilsoniv.
The last one, restricted to Cuba, is easily disposed of. It is readily told
by its yellowish upper mandible. The real problems deal with wun-
cinatus and megarhynchus. On glancing through the literature, we
find that no two authorities give the same range for megarhynchus,
which is said to differ from wncinatus only in having a larger bill. This
immediately aroused suspicion as to the validity of the race and was
the chief reason for gathering together specimens from all parts of the
ranges of the two (tropical Mexico to Bolivia and northern Argen-
tina). However, before it was possible to approach the geographic
variations in these birds, obviously conspecific and not, as often
stated, distinct species, it was necessary to work out their exceedingly
complicated and puzzling plumage sequence. The following detailed
description of the plumages of uncinatus reveals varieties within
phases, certainly a most unusual degree of variability. There are only
two real steps in the sequence—juvenal and adult, but both are com-
plex.

PLUMAGES OF C. UNCINATUS UNCINATUS

Adult male

a. Gray phase.—Above dark plumbeous, or plumbeous-black, becoming
fuscous, or fuscous-black in worn plumage; the occiput with much basal
white and the upper tail coverts tipped and banded with white. Sides of
face, ear coverts, and chin deep to dark plumbeous; under tail coverts white
to ochraceous-buff, uniform, or with traces of grayish bars occasionally
distinctly banded with plumbeous. Remainder of under parts deep plumb-
eous (usually paler than the upperparts) barred with narrow bands of white,
buff, or cinnamon-buff, which are variable in width, and are usually nar-

312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

rowly bordered by fuscous or fuscous-black. Axillaries and under wing
coverts uniform deep plumbeous, barred with white or buff; primaries
banded (about equally) with white and plumbeous-black below, dark plumb-
eous and plumbeous-black above, the outer webs often uniform plumbeous-
black; secondaries uniform dark plumbeous, occasionally with traces of
lighter bars below. Tail plumbeous-black to black, white basally, narrowly
tipped with white or deep mouse-gray, and crossed by two bands (the
anterior one the narrower) of white, or pinkish-buff, shading to deep mouse-
gray posteriorly and towards the outer webs, which are often uniform mouse-
eray above. Bill black, olive below; iris greenish white; feet orange-yellow,
claws black.

Unbarred variety.—Similar to the above description, but lacking entirely
or partially the white barring on the under parts.

Cinnamon-barred variety.—Similar to the above description, but with the
gray barring of the under parts more or less replaced by cinnamon-brown
or russet, and with more or less indication of a cinnamon or ochraceous-
tawny nuchal collar.

b. Melanistic phase-—Entire plumage deep fuscous black, with a slight
bronze-purple-green gloss; the occiput with much basal white; tail narrowly
tipped with white, and crossed by a single broad white band. Bill black
above, dirty olive below, tipped with black; cere and eyelids yellowish
green; skin in front of eye blue-green, spot above inner angle of eye orange-
yellow; iris white; feet gamboge.

Adult female.

a. Brown phase.—Forehead, auriculars, and sometimes the chin deep
gull-gray to deep neutral gray, or dark plumbeous; crown and occiput
fuscous to fuscous-black, with concealed white bases; a broad, continuous
nuchal collar of ochraceous-buff, tawny, or amber-brown occasionally ex-
tending to the ear coverts; remainder of upper parts fuscous to fuscous-
black, darker anteriorly, often with slightly paler (sometimes russet) edges
to the feathers; upper tail coverts tipped and barred with white or pale gray.
Entire under parts, including under wing coverts, white, or ochraceous-
white (more ochraceous on the under tail coverts,) with broad nearly equal
transverse bars of ochraceous-tawny, cinnamon-brown, russet, or amber-
brown, narrowly edged with fuscous or fuscous-black (occasionally this
edging is absent, and sometimes it widens to spread over almost the entire
bar). Outer primaries pale fuscous above, white, or pale mouse-gray below,
cream color, or pinkish buff toward the bases of the inner webs, and dis-
tantly banded with fuscous, or fuscous-black (the bands being about one
half or one third the width of the lighter interspaces) ; inner primaries chest-
nut, or russet, shading to creamy or pinkish buff towards the bases of their
inner webs, and distantly banded with fuscous; secondaries light fuscous
above, gull-gray below, white, or cream color toward the bases of the inner
webs, and somewhat indistinctly banded with dark fuscous. Tail fuscous-
black, to black, white basally, narrowly tipped with white or paler hair-
brown, and crossed by two bands of hair-brown or mouse-gray, shading to
white or pinkish buff on the inner webs, especially anteriorly. Bill black,
yellowish olive below; lores olive-orange; sides of cere olive-yellow; spot
above eye orange; skin in front of eye grass-green; iris white; feet gamboge.

Gray-backed variety.—Like the above, but with the upper parts plumbeous-
black to sooty-black, and with a tendency toward loss of the tawny nuchal

JULY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: HAWKS 313

collar. Females in this plumage variation are very like the cinnamon-barred
variation of the gray phase of the male.
b. Melanistic phase.—Similar to that of the male.

Immature.

No definite immature plumage; there is a gradual, and probably prolonged
molt from juvenal to adult, which appears to commence anteriorly, as well
as on the underparts, and to end with the tail.

Juvenal (sexes alike).

a. Light phase-—Forehead, crown, and occiput fuscous-black with white
bases to the feathers; a broad, white, cream, or pinkish-buff, nuchal collar,
continuous with the white under parts; remainder of upper parts fuscous
(shading to fuscous-black on the neck) with narrow cinnamon-tawny or
russet margins to the feathers; upper tail coverts tipped and barred with
white, or pinkish buff. Entire under parts white, or buff, shading to pinkish
buff on the thighs and under tail coverts and either uniform, or distantly
barred with hair brown, olive-brown, or fuscous (the number and width of
these bars varies considerably) ; outer primaries fuscous above, creamy white
towards the bases of the inner webs, and pallid neutral-gray below, barred
with fuscous-black; inner primaries with more or less orange-cinnamon to
cinnamon-rufous on both webs; secondaries fuscous above, with some white,
or buff, on the inner webs, mouse-gray below, and barred with darker fus-
cous. Tail fuscous-black, basally white, narrowly tipped with white, cream,
buff, or pinkish cinnamon, and crossed with three, or four pale bands, which
are uniform hair-brown to light fuscous, on the central pair, and irregularly
marked with white, cream, buff, or pinkish cinnamon on the remainder.

b. Melanistic phase.—Forehead, crown, and occiput fuscous-black to sooty
black; remainder of upper parts fuscous to fuscous-black, the feathers with
concealed white bars or spots near their bases; upper tail coverts tipped and
widely barred with white. Entire under parts fuscous to fuscous-black, with
concealed white bars on the bases of the feathers, the under tail coverts
tipped also with white, or buff; wings fuscous-black crossed by three or four
paler bars which are white basally, fuscous above, pale neutral gray below
distally. Tail fuscous-black to sooty black, white basally, tipped with white,
and crossed by two bands of white, shaded, or marked (especially on the
distal band) with hair-brown or mouse gray (that is, the tail pattern like that
of the non-melanistic adult).

THE HOOK-BILLED KITES OF GRENADA

The specimens of wncinatus from the island of Grenada prove to be
constantly smaller than those of the South American mainland or
from Trinidad and to have certain color differences as indicated be-
low. For this distinct race I propose the name

Chondrohierax uncinatus mirus subsp. nov.

Type: Adult male, American Museum Nat. Hist., 45054, collected on
March 26, 1885, at Morne Rouge, Grenada, by J. Grant Wells.
Subspecific characters.

Adult male.—Similar to the cinnamon-barred variety of the gray phase
of C. u. uncinatus, but smaller, and with nuchal collar well developed, cin-
namon-buff to ochraceous-buff, and the barring on the under parts ochrac-

314. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

eous-tawny to tawny, with little or no grayish edgings to the bars. Iris
pale green; bill and feet (in dried skins) like those of C. wu. uncinatus.

Adult female.—Similar to the brown phase of C. wu. uncinatus, but smaller
and differing in the following respects: top of head deep fuscous, with little
or no indication of gray; nuchal collar, extending to the ear coverts and
cheeks, ochraceous-buff to ochraceous-tawny; upper parts fairly widely
edged with tawny or cinnamon-rufous; barring on under parts more ochra-
ceous-tawny to tawny, and with little or no indication of brown edgings.

Immature and Juvenal.—Not known. |

Adult male (one specimen (type) ).— Wing 250; tail 165; culmen from base
of cere 28.0; tarsus 30.0; middle toe without claw, 25 mm.

Adult female (three specimens—one sexed ‘‘male,’’ another not sexed,
but undoubtedly female).—Wing 262-266 (264.3); tail 179-183 (181.3);
culmen 30.0-30.5 (30.3); tarsus 30.0-36.0 32.3; middle toe without claw
29.0-34.0 (31.0).

Range: The island of Grenada, where resident.

It is said by observers who have worked in Grenada that the birds there
never attain the wholly gray phase found in South America, so that it seems
that the island form is a case of arrested plumage development with a tend-
ency to hen feathering in the males (the cinnamon bars of the underparts
being essentially a female character in these birds). It is noteworthy that in
specimens from Trinidad and Venezuela we find suggestions of hen feather-
ing in males (the cinnamon-barred variety of the gray phase described in
the account of the plumage sequence of typical wncinatus). In Grenada it
has apparently become fixed.

Just as we find a tendency towards hen feathering in the males in this
species so too we find signs of cock feathering in the hens in some instances.
The gray-back phase of the adult female (represented by specimens from
Surinam and Venezuela) is apparently to be so considered.

THE HOOK-BILLED KITES OF MEXICO

Examination of a good series of Mexican specimens reveals the fact
that at least two subspecies of the hook-billed kite occur in that coun-
try. The birds inhabiting Tamaulipas, Jalapa, Guanajuato, and
Jalisco are a very distinct race and may be known as

Chondrohierax uncinatus aquilonis subsp. nov.

Type.—Museum of Comparative Zoology 113711, adult male, collected
in Tamaulipas, Mexico, April 9, 1900 (ex Worthen coll.).

Subspecific Characters—Males very much darker, especially on the under-
parts, than wncinatus, blackish plumbeous instead of deep plumbeous, the
white ventral bars broader than in topotypical wncinatus; females similar
to the darker barred brown phase of typical wncinatus (the ventral bars
russet or amber brown).

Measurements.—5 males—wing 279-300 (290), tail 186-210 (199), culmen
from cere 29-33.5 (31.1) mm; 4 females—wing 275-300 (291.5), tail 191-214
(204.5), culmen from cere 30.5-33 (32.3) mm.

Range.—Tamaulipas, Jalapa, Guanajuato, and Jalisco. It is possible that

JULY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: HAWKS 315

two very large birds from Guerrero are of this race, but the only male is

in the melanistic phase and cannot be identified subspecifically. I consider
them, together with Oaxaca, Quintana Roo, Chiapas, and Guatemalan
birds as typical wncinatus.

THE UNCINATUS-MEGARHYNCHUS PROBLEM

The form megarhynchus was described by Des Murs in Castelnau’s
Voyages, volume 1, Oiseaux, 1855, page 9, plate 1, from Sarayacu, some-
where near the eastern part of the Ecuadorean-Peruvian border. The type
locality of uwncinatus is ‘‘Vicinity of Rio to the north of Brazil and all of
Guiana.”’ If we measure the culmen from the cere in the plate given by Des
Murs, we find it to be 39 mm. The bird is, by plumage, a male. Now, if we
take our series of adult wncinatus and tabulate their dimensions, we find
two things, First, an enormous range of variation; second, no correlation
between variation and geography.

Adult male (26 specimens): Wing 265-301 (285.8); tail 1738-210 (191.1);
culmen from cere 27.0—35.5 (31.3), one 42.0; tarsus 32.0—-37.0 (35.1); middle
toe without claw 28.0—35.0 (31.1).

Adult female (31 specimens): Wing 268-321 (289.4); tail 191-228 (202.8);
culmen from cere 28.0—37.0 (81.6), one 43.5; tarsus 31.0-37.0 (33.8); one
28; middle toe, without claw 28.0—34.0 (30.9).

These measurements arranged geographically are presented in the tables
on the following page.

At first glance we may see that birds from eastern Brazil (Bahia, within
the original, vague type locality of wncinatus), from the Amazon, from Mexico
(Chiapas, and Guerrero) and from western Ecuador all match the characters
of megarhynchus. In other words, ‘‘megarhynchus’’ occurs here and there
throughout the range of uncinatus; furthermore, there is no gap in the size
variations between small wncinatus and large ‘“‘megarhynchus.”’ This con-
tinuity of variation and absence of geographical correlation point to but one
conclusion: that megarhynchus cannot be regarded as a taxonomic entity in
any way distinct from wncinatus. The problem, however, is not quite as
simple as a bald statement of it implies. One specimen from Ambata
Oriente, eastern Ecuador, and four from northeastern Peru (Cajamarca
to Rio Huallaga) regions from which wncinatus has not been recorded, are
so very much larger, in bill length, and also to some extent in the greater
width of the rectrices that I cannot put them in with the merged wncinatus-
megarhynchus series. These birds, which are described below, are apparently
the climax in size of the whole species, and it appears that the birds from
Keuador, the Andes of Venezuela, eastern Brazil, and southern Mexico, that
have appeared in literature as megarhynchus are variants of wncinatus in the
direction of the Ambata-Peruvian birds. This race may be known as

Chondrohierax uncinatus immanis subsp. nov.

Type—Museum of Comparative Zoology 149835, adult unsexed (female
by plumage), collected at Ambata Oriente, on the eastern base of the eastern
Andes, Ecuador, by Reinberg.

316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO.

TABLE 1.—MBASUREMENTS OF 26 MALE SPECIMENS OF CHONDROHIERAX
UNCINATUS UNCINATUS

Number of

Country Specimens Wing Culmen from Cere
Mexico (Guerrero) 1 301 42
Guatemala 3 281-299 (287.5) 30.0-383.0 (31.2)
Nicaragua il 290 33.0
Panama 1 299 30.5
Venezuela 5 265-294 (280.4) 29.0-30.5 (29.8)
Surinam 3 272-291 (283.0) 28 .5-30.5 (29.7)
Colombia 2 278-292 30 .5-34.0
Ecuador 5 274-289 (284.3) 32.5-35.5 (34.3)
Peru 2 286-298 33 .0—-33 .5
Brazil 2 275-285 27 .0-29.5
Argentina 1 300 30.0

TABLE 2.—MEASUREMENTS OF 31 FEMALE SPECIMENS OF C. UNCINATUS

Country nee Wing Culmen from Cere
Mexico (Guerrero) 2, 283-307 30 .0-43 .5
Guatemala 1 289 29.5
Nicaragua 1 290 aD
Costa Rica 1 290 30.0
Venezuela 6 272-309 (287.8) 29.0-31.5 (29.9)
Surinam 2 285-289 28 .0-30.5
Colombia 10 268-321 (285.0) 28 .0-34.5 (31.4)
Ecuador 4 284-303 (290.8) 28 .5-38.0 (33.6)
Peru 2 290-305 34 .0-34.5
Brazil 2, 293-295 30 .0—37 .0

TABLE 3.—MEASUREMENTS OF 10 SPECIMENS OF C. U. UNCINATUS SUPPLIED
BY Dr. P. R. Lowe

Locality Sex Wing Tail aaa Oe Tarsus
Amazon Unsexed 295 187 38 36
Brazil, Bahia 4 285 194 40 37

(worn)

Venezuela, Merida : 289 200 31 34
ss - Male 297 205 Bll 38

Mexico, Chiapas,
Tonala Male Bley 210 38 40
m Colotlan Male 291 205 30 35

fe Chiapas,
Tonala Female 308 2s 34 36
a : Female 305 PALG 36 39
cs < Female 296 205 35 30

Oaxaca Female Juv. 292 218 36 36

JULY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: HAWKS 317

Subspecific Characters.—Distinguished from wncinatus by its huge bill
and broad rectrices; wing 317, tail 228, culmen from cere 50 mm.

Adult male.—(2 specimens, Shapaja on the Rio Huallaga, and Chaupe,
Cajamarca Province): Wing 315, 319; tail 205, 228; culmen from cere 45,
50 mm.

Adult female.—(3 specimens including the type; Ambata Oriente, Ecua-
dor; Chaupe, Cajamarca Province and Rio Jelashte, San Martin, Peru):
Wing 306, 314, 317; tail 225, 228, 229; culmen from cere 48, 50, 50 mm.

Range.—Ambata Oriente, Ecuador, to northeastern Peru (Shapaja, Rio
Huallaga; Rio Jelashte, San Martin; and Chaupe Cajamarca).

Remarks.—It may seem strange to describe as new a form from a place
not far from the type locaity of megarhynchus (which is here relegated to the
synonymy of wncinatus) but, as is shown above, “‘megarhynchus’’ has no
discrete range or dimensional limits outside the variational range of typical
uncinatus. By describing immanis, megarhynchus is caused to assume its cor-
rect place as an intermediate between uncinatus and immanis, as it should
be on geographic grounds. The ‘‘megarhynchus”’ type of individuals from
Mexico, Venezuela, and eastern Brazil, cannot, of course, be said to be inter-
mediates between wncinatus and the geographically remote immanis, but
they are variants in the direction of the latter.

VARIATIONS, TYPE LOCALITY, AND RANGE OF C. U. UNCINATUS

Males in the gray phase vary slightly from north to south in the width
of the white ventral bars, the bars becoming narrower on the average in
Peru, the Guianas, Brazil, and Argentina, and broader in Central America,
but the difference is very slight. Peruvian males (2) are a little darker gray
on the underparts than specimens from other South American countries, but
again the difference is a faint one.

As stated above, the locality given by Temminck in the original descrip-
tion of this bird is very broad—from Rio de Janeiro to all of the Guianas.
This has never been restricted as far as I know; I hereby restrict it to the
vicinity of Paramaribo, Surinam.

The range of the nominate form of the hook-billed kite is as follows:
marshy and swampy places in the tropical zone-from southern Mexico
(Guerrero, Oaxaca, Yucatan, and Chiapas) south through Guatemala, Nica-
ragua, Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama to Colombia, Venezuela, the
Guianas, Brazil, western Ecuador, western, central, and southeastern Peru
to Bolivia (Santa Cruz de la Sierra), northwestern Argentina (Embarcacién
and Tucuman), Paraguay (Fort Wheeler) and southeastern Brazil (Sao
Paulo).

KEY TO THE SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF CHONDROHIERAX

a. Upper mandible pale yellowish white, inclining to bluish horn at the base;
feathers of upper parts with concealed white bars on their bases (Cuba)
a a rs Ee IN let ee OS oa eae ie wb Be ee eS C. wilsonit

318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 24, NO. 7

aa. Upper mandible black; no concealed white bars on the feathers of the
upper parts. ;
b. Size larger; wing 265-301 mm., in males; 268-321 mm. in females.
c. Bill smaller; culmen from cere less than 45 mm.
d. Plumage gray or dark gray, barred beneath with gray or dark gray
and white.
e. Ground color of under parts dark blackish plumbeous, white
bars wide, (about 5 nami)" 52 qe ne C. u. aquilonis ad.
ee. Ground color of under parts paler, deep plumbeous; white bars
NATLOW) CL35— 3; TAS hee eee ee ee pe C. u. uncinatus ad. oi
dd. Plumage dark brown or blackish brown above, barred beneath
with brown on white ground color or almost unbarred white.

e. Under parts heavily barred............ C. u. uncinatus ad. 2

C. u. aquilonis ad. 9

ee. Under parts nearly unbarred white....... C. u. uncinatus juv.

C. u. aquilonis juv.

ce. Billivery larcesculmen omni ee se C. u. immanis ade?
bb. Size smaller; wing 250 mm., in male; 262—266 mm.

In*iemaless(Grenada)) Se ake a a Crs Us:

I am much indebted to Mr. W. W. Bowen for assistance in com-
piling measurements and in working out the plumages of these birds.
Dr. J. Van Tyne and Mr. L. Griscom also aided by sending notes
and opinions about plumages and variations.

MALACOLOGY.—New Philippine land shells of the genus Obba.'
Paut Bartscu, U.S. National Museum.

A sending of Obbas to the U. 8. National Museum for determina-
tion by Mr. Walter F. Webb of Rochester, New York, has brought to
light a number of new races, which are here described.

The mass of Philippine material before me belonging to the genus
Obba, makes it possible to regroup some of the named forms in a more
natural arrangement. Mr. Webb’s recent sending makes it necessary
to give consideration to the mollusks which were described by von
Mollendorff (Nachrichtsblatt der Deutschen Malakozoologischen
Gesellschaft 20: 87-88) as

Obbina lasaller Eydoux

Obbina lasalle: forma subcarinata Mldff.
Obbina lasaller forma subcostata Mlldff.
Obbina lasallet var. obscura Mlldff.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-
ceived April 6, 1934.

JULY 15, 1934 BARTSCH: SHELLS OF GENUS OBBA 319

Figs. 1-3.—Obba listeri cabrasensis.

Figs. 4-6.—Obba grandis marivelesensis.
Figs. 7-9.—Obba listert mayae.

Obbina lasallei var. grandis Mlldff.
Also those treated by him in 1898 in the Abhandlungen der Natur-
forschenden Gesellschaft, Gérlitz, 22: 82-85. Here he renames the
shell he described as Obbina lasallei above, Obbina lasallei pallida, and
describes:

Obbina planulata subglobosa Mlldff.

Obbina planulata edentula Mlldff.

Obina planulata subangulata Mlldff.

Obbina planulata depressa Mlldff.

Obba lasallei Eydoux typifies an entirely distinct group of forms

whose conspicuous colored banding at once removes them from the
present complex, which will have to carry one of the four names be-

320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

stowed by von Mollendorff in 1888. Since von Mollendorff says that
the first two named forms were each based upon a single aberrant
individual which he found with what he then called Obbina lasallei
Eydoux at Montalban, Luzon, these are best passed over.

Of the others, that is his var. obscura and var. grandts, the latter
appears more appropriate. I shall therefore here select it for the specific
designation of the group.

OBBA GRANDIS Von Mollendorft

The shell ranges from medium size to quite large. Ground color flesh-
colored, variously mottled with flecks of dull brown, never actually spirally
banded, though a series of spots, which are almost confluent a little posterior
to the middle of the turns, suggests a narrow band on the upper surface
of the whorls. Base with an obscure interrupted zone of dull brown at some
distance anterior to the periphery. The last whorl has the outer lip decidedly
deflected at the posterior angle, which gives it a pinched-in effect at this
place. Peristome broadly expanded and reflected; basal lip without tooth,
or at best with the merest suggestion of a median tumidity.

This species as now conceived ranges over central Luzon whereit breaks
up into a number of recognizable races or subspecies.

It resembles in size Obba planulata (Lamarck), but is less depressed than
that species and lacks the strong basal tooth. It also suggests some of the
races of Obba sarcochroa Mollendorff, but the absence of basal tooth at once
distinguishes it from that species. Obba marmorata Mollendorff also SuBEcets
it, but here, too, we have a strong basal tooth present.

Obba grandis Méllendorff as here constituted embraces:

Obba grandis grandis Mlldff. Montalban (type locality).
Obba grandis grandis forma subcarinata Mlldff. Montalban.
Obba grandis grandis forma subcostata Mlldff. Montalban.
Obba grandis obscura Mlldff. Balacbac.

Obba grandis depressa Mildff. Morong.

Obba grandis edentula Mildff. Morong.

Obba grandis subglobosa Mlldff. Sibul.

Obba grandis subangulata Mlldff. Zambales.

Obba grandis marivelesensis Bartsch. Mariveles.

Obba Grandis Marivelesensis, new subspecies
Figs. 4-6

Shell of medium size, lenticular, with moderately elevated, well rounded
spire. Periphery feebly angulated. Base moderately well rounded and mod-
erately openly umbilicated. Ground color flesh colored, with a pale buff
tinge. The upper surface, particularly on the early postnuclear whorls,
flecked and mottled with pale chestnut brown. On the early turns these
flecks tend to form an interrupted median line and a second interrupted,
less conspicuous line a little anterior to the summit and a third immediately
above the suture, which is even fainter. The base is almost unicolor, the

JULY 15, 1934 BARTSCH: SHELLS OF GENUS OBBA o21

color scheme being varied slightly by retractively curved, faintly brownish
streaks coinciding with the incremental lines in placement. Aperture buff
within; peristome white. Nuclear whorls 2, well rounded, the first smooth
excepting incremental lines, and the last marked by incremental lines and
fine spiral striations. The postnuclear whorls are well rounded and marked
by fairly strong incremental lines, spiral striations and the microscopic
crisscross sculpture characteristic for the species. The early postnuclear
whorls seem to be more conspicuously keeled than those of the adult shell,
and the summit of the succeeding turns falls immediately below the keel
and is appressed to it. The base is marked by strong incremental lines, fine
spiral striations and microscopic, crisscross sculpture. Aperture oval, the
outer lip deflected at the posterior angle as if pinched down. There is an
impressed line at the junction of the outer and basal lip. The basal lip is
provided with a very slight swelling in the middle, suggesting in the merest
manner a fold. Parietal wall covered with a thin callus.

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 314046 was collected by Col. Edgar A. Mearns
on the beach at Mariveles, Bataan Province, Luzon. It has 5 whorls, and
measures: Height 14.7 mm; greater diameter, 29.8 mm; lesser diameter,
23.1 mm.

Height Greater Diameter Lesser Diameter
Average, 13.8 mm. 28.3 mm. 21.98 mm.
Greatest, 15.2 mm. 30.5 mm. 25 mms
Least, 1223 mim: 25.3 mm. 19.6 mm.

Obba Listeri Mayae, new species
Figs. 7-9

Shell large, lenticular, acutely keeled at the periphery with a narrow
umbilicus; color rather dark, the upper surface marbled, with a heavy row
of rather large, elongated spots, which are more or less confluent and form
a median band between the summit and the periphery. There is a tendency
to the formation of two additional bands; one a little anterior to the summit,
and the other a little posterior to the periphery. The rest of the upper sur-
face is variously streaked, blotched and spotted with chestnut-brown of a
little lighter color than the median band. The under surface is also marked
by an almost uninterrupted broad band of brown, which is about as far
anterior to the periphery as the median band on the summit is distant from
the periphery. The rest of the base posterior to this band is also mottled,
but paler than the dorsal surface, while the reach between the umbilicus
and the dark band is wax colored, streaked with darker incremental lines.
The aperture is buff; the outer lip shows the dark mearkings within. Nuclear
whorls 124, well rounded, smooth; postnuclear whorls flattened on the upper
surface and slightly up-turned toward the periphery. The succeeding turns
are appressed to the narrow edged keel but occasionally this projects slightly
beyond the summit of the succeeding turn. The postnuclear whorls are
marked by retractively curved, slender, incremental lines and numerous,
fine spiral threads which give to the surface a finely reticulated pattern.
The fine microscopic, crisscross sculpture characteristic for the group is
also represented here. In addition to this, the upper surface is marked,
particularly on the later whorls, by strong malleations. The under surface
is marked by incremental lines, fine wavy spiral striations, which are a

322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

little stronger at the periphery than toward the umbilicus and the crisscross
sculpture referred to above. The last part of the last whorl is conspicuously
malleated below the periphery. Aperture oval; outer lip reenforced by a
rather thick callus, less strong on the parietal wall, provided with a slight
notch at the junction of the basal and upper lip and a fairly strong median
basal tooth.

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 314044 and 10 specimens were collected on Gun-
tang Mountain, Lubang Island. The type has 5 whorls, and measures:
Height, 10.6 mm; greater diameter, 35.5 mm; lesser diameter, 28.7 mm.

Ten additional specimens, two of which, U.S.N.M. No. 314045, are in
the collection of the U.S. National Museum, and the remainder in Mr.
Webb’s collection, and the type yield the following measurements:

Height Greater Diameter Lesser Diameter
Average, 12.0 mm. 34.5 mm. 27.5 mm.
Greatest, Se Zeman 36.3 mm. 28.9 mm.
Least, 10.6 mm. 32.5 mm. 25.8 mm.

This subspecies suggests in general shape the shell that I collected at Port
Tilig, Lubang Island, which I named O. l

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